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REPORT 

of a Survey of the 
School System 

of Salt Lake City, Utah 

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Authorized by a Resolution of the 

Board of Education 

May Fourth, Nineteen Fifteen 

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Submitted to the Board of Education j 
June thirtieth. Nineteen Hundred Fifteen ■ 



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Report of the Survey 

of the Public School System of 
Salt Lake City, Utah 

Authorized by resolution of the Board of Educatioi^ "H^ 
May 4, 1915. 



SURVEY STAFF 

Ellwood P. Cubberley, Professor of Education, Leland Stanford 
Junior University. Director of the Survey; Administra- 
tion ; Finances. 

James H. Van Sickle, Superintendent of City Schools, Spring- 
field, Massachusetts. Courses of Study ; Instruction. 

Lewis M. Terman, Associate Professor of Education, Leland 
Stanford Junior University. School Buildings; Health 
Supervision ; Physical Education. 

Jesse B. Sears, Assistant Professor of Education, Leland Stan- 
ford Junior University. Efficiency Tests. 

J. Harold Williams, Research Fellow, Leland Stanford Junior 
University. Progress of Pupils ; Statistical Work ; Draw- 
ings. 

Submittedto the Board of Education, June 30, 1915. 



i'. Of JD. 
JAN 18 1916 









(^,5 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



DIRECTOR'S LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 
Mr. Ledyard M. Bailey, 

Chairman Survey Committee, 
Salt Lake City, Utah. 
Dear Sir: 

I have the honor to submit to you herewith, for your com- 
mittee, the final report of the survey of the public school system 
of your city, as authorized and directed by resolution of the 
Board of Education on May 4th, 1915. 

The work on this survey was begun in Salt Lake City on 
May 10th, and finished on May 28th. During the progress of 
the work the meml)ers of the staff were in constant consulta- 
tion, and the nature and scope of the report gradually shaped 
itself while ive were in Salt Lake City. Before leaving the city 
the report was outlined, in some detail, and formed the subject 
o'f discussion for a number of evenings. As an outgroAvth of 
this discussion the conclusions here presented were agreed 
upon. 

To facilitate the work of the survey, as well as the writing 
of the different chapters, each member of the survey staff gave 
particular attention to the parts which he was to organize in 
written form. Since leaving Salt Lake City each member of 
the staff has written the parts assigned to him, the drawings 
to illustrate the conclusions have been made, and all have been 
submitted to the director, who has organized and unified the 
report. The responsibility for the report as a whole rests with 
the director of the survey, though the proper credit for the 
chapters written by the different members is indicated in 
parentheses at the beginning of each chapter. 

In preparing the report we have tried to commend the 
good features of your school system, and to use criticism only 
as a basis for constructive recommendations. The larger 
aspects of your problem relate to buildings, teachers, and 
finance, and these have naturally received the major emphasis. 
It is hoped that the report may prove of much service to your 
board in handling the educational problems with which you 
have to deal, and in securing the new legislation which is so 
necessary if your schools are to make th*- progress they ought 



iv SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

to make. A city the character of yours cannot afford to rest 
content with the present situation. It is also hoped that the 
people of your city may find much in the report that will be of 
interest to them, and will serve to give them a more intelligent 
conception of the magnitude and intricacy of the problems of 
public education in a city such as yours. 

The rapidity with which we were able to do the work is in 
part due to the courteous and helpful assistance rendered the 
members of the survey staff by every one with whom we had 
to deal. Especially is an expression of appreciation due to the 
entire office force of the different administrative departments 
of the school system, the school principals, and the teachers 
who assisted in the grading of the pupil tests. I also wish to 
take this opportunity to express my appreciation of the large 
capacity for work on the part of those associated with me on 
the survey. 

Respectfully submitted, 

ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, 

Director of the Survey. 

Stanford University, California, 
June 25th, 1915. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION. 

Page. 
CHAPTER I. THE PR0BLE:\I BEFORE US 5 

Position of the city — Comparative isolation of the city — 
Growth in population — Character of the population — Percent- 
age of children — Occupations of the city — Wealth of the city — 
The city and its needs — Order of procedure. 

CHAPTER II. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOL 

SYSTEM 22 

General State control — Carrying out the State purpose — 
The Board's proper functions — The Salt Lake City organiza- 
tion — Committees and departments — Right principles in school 
organization — A proper administrative reorganization — The 
public and the superintendent — A more fundamental reorgan- 
ization desirable — Summary of recommendations. 

CHAPTER III. THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE EDU- 
CATIONAL DEPART]\IENT 36 

Work of the educational department — The supervisory 
staff — The present special supervision — Further supervisory 
needs — The worth of supervision — The school principals — Rea- 
sons for this difference in Salt Lake City — The premium on 
individual initiative. 

CHAPTER IV. THE TEACHING STAFF 47 

Growth of the school system — Position of Salt Lake City 
as to teachers — Other bad features of the teacher situation — 
The salary schedules — Comparative salaries paid — Conclusions 
as to teachers. 

CHAPTER V. SCHOOL CENSUS AND ATTENDANCE 59 

The increase in both — A school census bureau — ^Value of 
in locating school buildings — Enforcement of compulsory at- 
tendance — Where the schools are increasing — Pupils complet- 
ing the high school course. 

PART II. THE WORK OF THE SCHOOLS. 

CHAPTER VI. THE PRINTED COURSES OF STUDY 71 

Order of procedure — Opinions and tests. 
I. The kindergartens — The kindergarten theory — More 
kindergartens needed. 



Ti SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

II. The courses of study for elementary schools — How 
the courses of study were made — What the courses prescribe — 
Diversity in time allotments — Pupils who cannot accomplish 
the minimum. 

III. The school subjects in detail — 1. Morals, manners, 
and civics — 2. The language, or English group — Emphasis on 
English work — Reading and literature — Good oral reading — 
Where improvements might be made — Phonics — Language and 
grammar — 3. Spelling — Time given to spelling— 4. Writing — 
The method used — 5. History, Civics, and Sociology— The 
general plan — Attention to local history — Excellent features 
of the course — 6. Nature study — The printed outline — Di- 
versity in kind and amount of work done — School and home 
gardening — 7. Arithmetic — Nature of the printed course — The 
teaching observed — 8. Geography — The course good — The in- 
struction observed — 9. Music — The instruction observed — 10. 
Art and Construction — Need for more supervision — The Art 
and Handwork outlines — Drawing in the lower grades — Model- 
ing — Other constructional activities — 11. Manual Training — 
A poor course of study — Work needs enlarging — Suggestions 
for improvement — 12. Domestic Arts and Science — 13. Phys- 
ical Training. 

CHAPTER VIT. THE INSTRTTTION AND SUPERVI- 
SION AS SEEN ; DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS lOS 

I. The instruction and supervision as seen — The quality 
of instruction— An observed characteristic — The principals 
and their work — The supervision of work in the common 
branches — Promotion of pupils — Types of examination tests 
used — The quality of the grade supervision. 

II. Desirable extensions — The Junior high school — The 
plan as yet imperfectly developed — Types of courses needed — 
The Senior high schools — Ungraded classes. 

CHAPTER VIII. THE EFFICIENCY OF THE INSTRUC- 
TION MEASURED 127 

Purpose of this section of the report— Extent of the tests 
made — Nature of tests given — What such tests should reveal — 
How the tests were conducted — 1. The test in spelling — 
Status of spelling in the city's curriculum — The test and how 
it was conducted— The results of the test— Results of the test 
by individuals — Uneven ability shown — Comparison with three 
other cities— 2. The test in composition — Nature and method 
of the composition test — The results of the test— Children not 
well classified for language work — Samples of average com- 
position — Salt Lake City's composition work — Conclusions and 
recommendations — 3. The writing test — Writing in the school 
curriculum — How the writing was measured — Results by 
schools and by grades — Variability among individuals in the 
same grade — Comparison with other cities — How well the 
average child can write — Needed changes in instruction — 4. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS vii 

The test in reading — How the reading was tested — Results 
of the test — Variation between individuals — The speed test — 
The problem the schools must meet — 5. The tests in arith- 
metic — Arithmetic in the course of study — How the arithmetic 
was tested — Results of tests in the fundamentals — Widely dif- 
ferent results in different schools — Comparison with other 
cities — Accuracy in use of number combinations — The reason- 
ing test — Comparison with other cities in reasoning test — 6. 
Summary and recommendations — The use of standardized 
tests. 

CHAPTER IX. THE PROGRESS OF CHILDREN 

THROUGH THE SCHOOLS 187 

Importance of proper school progress — Age and grade dis- 
tribution — High percentage of retarded pupils — Distribution of 
the retarded pupils — Conditions in one room— A proper redis- 
tribution of the pupils — The fifth grade as an example of 
uneven distribution — "Repeaters" — Causes of retardation — Age 
at entering the first grade— Other explanations for retarda- 
tion — Subnormal and backward children — Mental classification 
groups — Children examined by the intelligence tests — The 
measuring scale used — Backward children studied — Feeble- 
minded children — These waste both the teacher's time and 
their own — Number of such found in every city — The ungraded 
school — Mistaken aim of the ungraded school — Proper training 
for such pupils — The so-called ungraded rooms — In reality 
"Batavia" rooms — What is needed — The principal of such a 
school — Ungraded rooms for the different schools — Otherwise 
■ exceptional children — Typical cases found — The problem of de- 
linquency — Summary of recommendations. 

PART III. BUILDINGS AND HEALTH. 

CHAPTER X. THE SCHOOL PLANT 221 

The present buildings — The school sites — Size of school 
grounds — Waste of space in buildings — The result of such 
excess — Lighting — Light tests — Heating — Ventilation — Other 
factors in v'entilation — Poor ventilation common — Basement 
and hall class rooms — These should be abandoned — School 
desks — Blackboards — Cloak rooms — Special rooms — Open air 
schools — School baths— Toilets — ^^Vhat this table reveals — 
Drinking fountains — Roller towels — Janitor service — Need for 
greater cleanliness — Fire protection — Quality of construction 
and costs — Repairs — Summary and recommendations. 

CHAPTER XL HEALTH SUPERVISION 259 

Standards for comparison — Officers and assistants — Scope 
and nature of work — Costs — Stages in the development of 
health service — The second stage in development — The third 
stage — Health supervision becomes an educational service — 
Nature of the school health work in Salt Lake City — Stage in 



viii SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

development represented — Results from the present service — 
Effectiveness of the school nurse — Expansions planned by the 
health commissioner — Health conditions of Salt Lake City 
school children — Summarizing the data on health conditions 
among the children — Headaches — Ears and hearing — Eyes and 
vision — Nose and throat troubles — Teeth — What this examina- 
tion revealed — General weakness — Mentally or morally excep- 
tional children — Speech defects — Malnutrition — Health work 
should be extended — Conclusions and recommendations. 

CHAPTER XII. PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PLAY- 
GROUND ACTIVITIES, AND HYGIENE TEACHING..283 

L Physical Education — Two types of physical training — 
The type in Salt Lake City — An average and fair example of 
the indoor games — Other exercises seen — Character of the 
yard play — Play teachers needed — Physical education in the 
high schools — The military drill — Better physical training de- 
sirable. 

n. Playground activities — Small school playgrounds- 
Larger use of playgrounds desirable — Vacation playground 
activities. 

III. Hygiene teaching — The present course of instruction 
—Practical instruction — The buildings negative the instruc- 
tion — Summary and recommendations. 

PART IV. FINANCES'. 

CHAPTER XIII. THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM 301 

City costs for maintenance — Costs per capita for schools — 
Why these figures are misleading — A real basis for comparing 
school costs — The median western cost — Where Salt Lake City 
stands — Wealth and tax rates — Need for a larger school tax — 
The remedy a legislative one — Distribution of expenditures — 
Distribution of expenditures during the next two years. 



APPENDIX A. 

A SUGGESTED LAW FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF 

THE SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOL DISTRICT 319 

Schools in cities of first class — The board of education — 
Conduct of elections — Organization of board — Executive offi- 
cers — Superintendent of schools — Clerk and purchasing agent 
— Treasurer — Superintendent of buildings — Superintendent of 
attendance and census — Superintendent of health work — An- 
nual report — Annual budget — Annual school tax — Other 
powers. 



LIST OF FIGURES. ix 

LIST OF FIGURES IN REPORT. 

Figure. Page. 

1. The elements of the population of Salt Lake City 8 

2. Age distribution of the population 13 

3. Portland, Ore., and Salt Lake City compared as to 

children 15 

4. Present administrative organization of the Salt Lake 

City school system 27 

5. An administrative reorganization along proper lines 31 

6. A quarter century of growth in the schools. 37 

7. A quarter century of growth in children in school, and 

in teachers employed 47 

8. Distribution of salaries paid elementary-school teach- 

ers, 1914-10 : 51 

9. Where the teachers of Salt Lake City have received 

their education 52 

10. Distribution of salaries paid high-school teachers, 

1914-15 53 

11. Tenure of teachers, as shown by year of first appoint- 

ment to the teaching force 54 

12. Increase in school census, enrollment, and average 

membership , 59 

13. Age distribution of pupils in Salt Lake City 63 

14. Changes in the enrollment by grades in twenty years 64 

15. The percentage which the attendance at the high 

schools represents of the attendance at all schools... 66 

16. Results- of the spelling test, by schools 132 

17. Showing for the city as a whole, and by grades, the 

percentage attaining each of the possible scores 135 

18. Results of the composition test 141 

19. Showing the percentage attaining each of the possible 

scores ..— 150 

20. Sample representing the median achievement in writ- 

ing in each grade : 153 



X SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Figure. Page. 

21. Showing the distribution of scores in the speed reading 

test 161 

22. Rate of reading in Salt Lake City compared with tests 

made in other cities 162 

23. Relation of speed test to memory test in reading 164 

24. Distribution of scores attained in addition test 171 

25. S'tandi'ng in the four fundamental operations of arith- 

metic - 175 

26. Relative accuracy in addition 179 

27. Distribution of results in the Stone reasoning test 181 

28. Relative proportions of normal, retarded, and accel- 

erated pupils 190 

29. Degree of acceleration or retardation of pupils 192 

30. Distribution, by grades, of nornl^l, accelerated, and 

retarded pupils 193 

31. Percentage of retarded pupils, by grades 194 

32. Accelerated, normal, and retarded pupils in one room 197 

33. Age distribution of all fifth-grade pupils 198 

34. Relative number of promotions and failures, by grades-199 

35. Distribution of ages at which children enter first g''rade...201 

36. Actual and mental ages compared for a group of re- 

tarded pupils 205 

37. Percentage of children having playgrounds of various 

sizes 224 

38. Percentage of school rooms having various areas 226 

39. Proportion of class rooms in relation to window area 

and floor space _ 230 

40. The Bishop Harman Photometer 233 

41. Frequency of different temperatures in class rooms 237 

42. Results of examination of children's eyes 274 

43. Some health conditions among school children 280 

44. jMinutes per week devoted to physiology and hygiene 295 

45. How Salt Lake City spends its dollar 302 

46. Tax rate for maintenance in different cities compared...312 

47. Increase in expenses and children in schools compared. .315 



LIST OF TABLES. xi 

LIST OF TABLES IN REPORT. 
Table. Page. 

1. Size and rate of growth of twenty-six selected cities 10 

2. Composition of population of twenty-six selected cities... 11 

3. Percentage of children in the total population com- 

pared 12 

4. Percentages of children in the total population 14 

5. Number engaged in each occupation, for each 1000 

employed 17 

6. Assessed and real wealth per capita of total popula- 

tion ., 19 

7. Assessed and real wealth per capita for western cities... 20 

8. Number of pupils in average daily attendance for each 

supervisory officer 39 

9. Number of pupils in average daily attendance per 

teacher employed, in all schools 49 

10. Comparative salary schedules in western cities 55 

11. Wage scale for different types of employees in Salt 

Lake City 57 

12. Weekly time schedules by subjects and grades 76 

13. Time schedules by subjects in twelve different cities 89 

14. Occupational statistics for Salt Lake City 121 

15. Results of spelling test, by schools 131 

16. Distribution of results of spelling test, by grades 133 

17. Comparison in spelling test with other cities 137 

18. Distribution of composition scores, by grades 140 

19. Comparison of median composition scores with those 

of other cities 145 

20. Distribution of average scores in penmanship 148 

21. Distribution of scores on 2685 samples of penmanship, 

by grades 149 

22. Results in penmanship compared for different cities 152 

23. Results of the reading test, by schools 158 

24. Results of the silent reading test, by grades 160 

25. Number of words read per minute, by typical classes 160 

26. Distribution of points read and number remembered 163 

27. Amount and distribution of time in arithmetic 165 

28. Distribution with respect to number of examples fin- 

ished 170 



xii SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

Table. Page. 

29. Relative standing of schools in the fundamentals of 

arithmetic 173 

30. Comparison of results in arithmetic with other cities 174 

31. Distribution of attempts and corrects in arithmetic 

test : 177 

32. Comparison in arithmetic tests with other cities 178 

33. Distribution of scores in reasoning test in arithmetic 180 

34. Distribution of scores of individual members of typical 

classes 180 

35. Average score in reasoning test in arithmetic, by 

schools and grades _ 183 

36. Age and grade distribution on May 10th, 1915 188 

37. Accelerated, normal, and retarded pupils, by grades 189 

38. Retardation in American cities 191 

39. Size of present school sites 223 

40. The lighting of Salt Lake City school rooms 228 

41. Results of light test on darkest desk in 32 class rooms...234 

42. Temperatures found in class rooms 236 

43. Seating, lighting, and toilet facilities in the different 
schools - - - 249 

44. Drinking fountains provided 251 

45. Effect of treating floors with oil 253 

46. Health questionnaire. 1 271 

47. Health questionnaire, II 272 

48. Results of mouth examination of 4363 school children...276 
49 Comparison of expenditures for city maintenance with 

other western cities 301 

50. Per capita costs for city maintenance, and per capita 

and percentage amounts for schools 303 

51. Cost per capita for schools, based on each 1% of chil- 

dren 307 



LIST OF TABLES. xiii 

Table. Page. 

52. Median and actual cost per capita for schools for 

western cities 308 

53. Maintenance cost per pupil in average daily attend- 

ance 310 

54. Necessary tax rates to produce estimated school sup- 

port 311 

55. Comparison of distribution of school expenditures with 

other western cities 317 



Report of the 

Survey Staff 




PART I 

Organization and 
Adminstration 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 

CHAPTER I. 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US. 
(Cubberley) 



Position of the City. It always leads to a clearer under- 
standing of a problem such as we have before us for study 
if we first locate the city with which we are to deal. By this 
is meant not its geographical location, as that is well known, 
but rather its social and economic location among cities of 
its size and class. From such a study of the social and 
economic position and relationships the problem of public 
education, which is essentially a social and economic prob- 
lem, stands out more distinctly than it otherwise can do. 
Such a social and economic study we shall first make, before 
proceeding to a detailed study of the accomplishments and 
needs of the educational organization of the city. 

For the purpose of this study we shall compare Salt 
Lake City with a number of other cities of its size and class. 
In doing this we shall use in part the twenty-five other 
northern and western cities which, hy the U. S. Census of 
1910, were classed as growing cities and as having, at that 
time^ 'between .75,000 and 125,000 inhabitants. As Salt Lake 
City had a population of 92,777 in 1910, and is estimated as 
now having a population of approximately 110,000, it will be 
..«en that this group of cities includes those of a size and 
class with which Salt Lake City may be properly compared. 
For purposes of comparing Salt Lake 'City with western cities 
alone, another table of sixteen distinctly western cities, all 
of which had 25,000 or more inhabitants in 1910, will also at 
times be used. For all these cities, the reports of the U. S. 
Census for 1910, and the U. S. Census Bureau's annual 
Statistics of 'Cities, provide good data for comparative pur- 
poses. 



6 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

Comparative Isolation of the City. One of the most con- 
spicuous features of Salt Lake City, and one which in a way 
modifies its activities and needs, is its comparative isolation. 
One must travel to the east as far as Denver before one finds 
a city of its class, and to the west as far as Sacramento. 
Within a radius o'f 700 miles there is not only no community 
the size of Salt Lake City, but within this same radius but 
three cities having more than 15,000 inhabitants are found. 
One of these is the neighboring city of Ogden, and the other 
two are 400 miles to the north, in Idaho and Montana. In 
travelling to the eastward the summit of the continental 
divide must be crossed, while to the westward the desert and 
the Sierra Nevada Mountains block the way. 

Beautifully situated on a rising slope between the "Wa- 
satch and the Oquirrh ranges of mountains, in a country rich 
in mineral and agricultural resources and in a valley of great 
fertility, with the state university and the state capitol with- 
in its bounds, the city stands as the mineral, agricultural, po- 
litical, financial, social, and educational center of the state, 
and, to a large degree, of the inter-mountain plateau as well 
Blessed with a fine climate, plenty of good water, abundant 
sunshine, good educational facilities, and a progressive peo- 
ple, the city has attracted to itself a population of good char- 
acter and great virility, and one which has made for the city 
a somewhat independent position along social, educational, 
financial, and industrial lines. Forced to depend largely upon 
itself, the city has developed in a small way into a manu- 
facturing and producing center of some local importance. 
The mining industry tributary to it is of large commercial 
value, and is destined to remain such for a long time to come. 
But, notwithstanding these developments, the city is essen- 
tially a home city, its population consisting very largely of a 
substantial middle class of the home-building and home-own- 
ing type, interested in good government, good schools, and the 
promotion of the home. 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 



Growth in population. The growth of the city within 
the past quarter century has been very rapid. This may be 
seen from the following tabular statement. 







Per Cent oi 


' Incr 


Year. 


Population. 


During Period, 


1880 


20,768 
44,843 






1890 


115.9 


% 


1900 


53,531 


19.4 


% 


1910 


92,777 


73.3 


% 


1915 


110,000* 







♦Estimate for July 1, 1915. 



Among the cities of its size and class it was exceeded 
in rate of growth, from 1900 to 1910, by but three of the 
twenty-five cities we shall use ifor comparative purposes, as 
may be seen from the following table. 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

TABLE NO. 1. 



SIZE AND RATE OF GROWTH OF TWENTY-SIX SE- 
LECTED CITIES'.* 



City. 


Population 
1910 


Rate of Increase 
1900-1910 


1. Troy, N. Y 


76,813 

77,936 

78,466 

79,066 

79,803 

82,331 

83,743 

85,892 

86,368 

88,926 

89,336 

92,777 

94,538 

96,071 

96,652 

96,815 

98,915 

100,253 

102,054 

104,402 

104,839 

106,294 

112,571 

116,577 

119,295 

124,096 


26.6 % 
25.3 % 

48.1 % 

76.2 % 
66.5 % 
60.1 % 

122.0 % 

37.3 % 

39.0 % 

43.3 % 

30.4 % 
73.3 % 

24.5 % 

21.7 % 

54.8 % 

32.1 % 

23.9 % 
6.5 % 

43.7 % 
183.3 % 

14.1 % 
11.9 % 

28.6 % 
36.6 % 

13.8 % 
21.0 % 


2. Somerville, Mass 

3. Duluth, Minn 


4. Youngstown, Ohio 

5. Yonkers, N. Y 

6. Kansas City, Kan 

7. Taconia, Wash 

8. Lawrence, Mass 

9. Des, Moines, la 

10. Springfield, Mass 

11. Lynn, Mass 


12. Salt Lake City, Ut... 

13. Camden, N. J 


14. Reading, Pa. ... 


15. New Bedford, Mass.... 

16. Trenton, N. J 


17. Hartford, Conn 

18. Albany, N. Y 


19. Bridgeport, Conn 

20. Spokane, Wash 

21. Cambridge, Mass 

22. Lowell, Mass 


23. Grand Rapids, Mich. 

24. Dayton, Ohio . 


25. Fall River, Mass 

26. Omaha, Neb. . 





•This table contains every northern and western city which in 1910 
had between 75,000 .ind 125,000 Inhabitants, and which had increased 
in population during the preceding decade. 

Of the distiiictiA^ely western cities, with which Salt Lake 
City will also be compared for items of expense, only the Pa- 
cific coast cities exceed Salt Lake City in rate of growth from 
1900 to 1910. 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 9 

This means that Salt Lake City was among the few most 
rapidly growing American cities during the period. Averaged 
over the entire ten years from 1900 to 1910 the increase was 
equal to 11.2 persons per day. As the rate oi growth, judged 
by the number of children in the schools, was more rapid 
toward the end of the period than during the earlier part 
of it, the rate toward the latter part of the period must have , 
been at least as high as fifteen persons per day. The increase 
in the number of children in school would indicate that a 
growth at least as rapid as this still continues. 

Character of the Population. In character the population 
is mostly of excellent racial stock. Figure 1 shows that 78 
out of every 100 persons in the city, in 1910, were born in the 
United States, and 41 out of every 100 were born of parents 
both of whom also were born here. This is about average for 
all northern and western cities, being higher than in the man- 
ufacturing centers of the east and lower than in the resi- 
dential cities of the West. Of the 21.0 % who were of for- 
eign birth, it will be noticed that 9.3 per cent came from Eng- 
lish-speaking lands, leaving but 11.8 per cent from non-Eng- 
lish-speaking countries. Three-fourths of tbese were from Ger- 
man, Austrian, or Scandinavian countries. But 1.1 per cent 
were, at that time, from countries to the south and east of 
Europe (Italians, Greeks, the Balkan States, Armenia, Turkey) 
and but eight-tenths of 1 per cent were of the negro race. The 
miscellaneous group included but few Orientals. 

This means that the city, in 1910, had a particularly select 
class of people, with no serious educational or social problem 
arisinig from the presence of a large number of foreign born, 
Orientals or negroes. Coming from countries where primary 
education has long prevailed, the number of illiterates in the 
population is naturally low. The average for the city in 1910 
was 1.6 per cent, as against 7.7 per cent for the United States 
as a whole, and 6.9 per cent for the Mountain States. The 
foreign-born element showed an illiteracy of 4.4 per cent, and 
the native born but 0.25 per cent, with most of this among 
the few negroes. 



10 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



The number of foreigfn born from the south and east of 
Europe has since increased, both in actual numbers and in 
percentage of the total population, and their settlement largely 
in that part of the city lying along the railroad tracks is cer- 




ma. 1. THE ELEMENTS OF THE POPULATION OF 
SALT LAKE CITY. 

tain to develop there what will in time become a serious educa- 
tional and social problem. In a sense it has already become 
such. With the marked turn of immigration from the north 
and west of Europe to the countries to the south and east, 
that has characterized the immigration of the past fifteen years, 
Salt Lake City cannot hope to escape receiving an increasing 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 



11 



percentage of these more poorly educated and less well de- 
veloped racial stocks. 

The following table compares Salt Lake City with other 
cities of its size and class in the matter of the elements of 
its population. 



TABLE NO. 2. 

COMPOSITION OF THE POPULATION OF 26 SELECTED 

CITIES. 





Percentage of the WholeWho Are 


Foreign 
Born 




City 


Native 
Born of 
Native 
Parents 


Native 

bom with 

or both 

Parents 

Foreign 

Born 


Negroes 


1. Reading, Pa 


77.8 % 

62.3 

62.0 

58.3 

52.4 

52.3 

44.4 

43.6 

42.6 

42.0 

41.1 

40.0 

40.2 

38.3 

37.1 

36.2 

32.4 

31.4 

27.1 

26.6 

24.4 

19.7 

19.5 

19.4 

13.6 

13.3 


12.2 % 

22.3 

21.9 

17.8 

24.5 

26.1 

36.4 

28.5 

31.9 

37.1 

37.0 

30.2 

32.2 

34.5 

31.3 

38.0 

33.7 

35.2 

37.5 

36.6 

38.0 

40.6 

39.5 

33.5 

37.9 

43.7 


9.2 % 
12.0 
11.9 
12.6 
16.6 
20.3 
18.1 
25.6 
21.8 
20.1 
21.1 
27.2 
25.9 
26.9 
30.6 
25.2 
31.4 
31.6 
33.3 
35.5 
33.3 
39.1 
40.9 
44.1 
48.1 
42.6 


0.8 % 
3.4 


2. Des Moines, la 


3. Dayton, Ohio 


4.2 


4. Kansas City, Mo 

5. Camden, N J. . 


11.3 
6.4 


6. Spokane, Wash 


0.7 


7. Albany, N. Y 


1.0 


8. Tacoma, Wash 


0.9 


9. Omaha, Neb 


3.6 


10. Troy, N Y. . 


08 


11. Salt Lake City, Ut 

12. Trenton, N. J 


0.8 

2.7 


13. Springfield, Mass. 

14. Somerville, Mass 

15. Lynn, Mass 


1.7 
0.3 

0.8 


16. Grand Rapids, Mich. ... 

17. Youngstown, Ohio 

18. Hartford, Conn 


0.6 
2.4 

1.8 


19. Yonkers, NY 


19 


20. Bridgeport, Conn 

21. Cambridge, Mass 

22. Duluth, Minn 


1.3 
4.5 
0.5 


23. Lowell, Mass 


0.1 


24. New Bedford, Mass 

25. Lawrence, Mass 


3.0 
0.3 


26. Fall River, Mass. . . . 


03 






U. S. a*s a whole 


54.1 


20.5 


14.7 107 









12 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



Percentag-e of Children. In the percentage of children in 
the total population, Salt Lake City ranks high among west- 
ern cities. The general characteristics of a western city are a 
marked preponderance of males, a small percentage of married 
males, and a small number of children. In these respects Salt 
Lake City is an exception, as it has but a small preponderance 
of males, a large percentage of the males are married, and in 
number of children it ranks with the markedly-foreign-born 
manufacturing cities of the east and the cities of the south. 
Only one other western city, Ogden, exceeds it in percentage of 
children. This may be seen from the following table. 



TABLE NO. 3. 
PERCENTxVGE OF CHILDREN IN THE TOTAL POPULA- 
TION CO:\IPARED FOR WESTERN CITIES. 





Percentage of Children 


City. 


5 to 15 yeara 
of age, in- 
clusive. 


Under 15 
years of 
age. 


1. Ogden, Utah 


20.0 % 

18.5 

16.0 

15.2 

15.2 

15.1 

14.7 

14.0 

14.1 

13.8 

13.6 

13.4 

13.0 

12.5 

12.1 

12.0 

11.9 


32.1 % 
29.6 
23.3 
23.6 


2. Salt Lake City, Ut 

3. Colorado Springs, Col. 

4. Tacoma, Wash 


5. Denver, Colo 


23 1 


6. Butte, Mont 


23.9 


7. Berkeley, Cal. . 


oo 7 


S. Spokane, Wash 


23.2 


9. Oakland, Cal 


22.5 


10. San Jose, Cal 


214 


11. Pasadena. Cal 


20.3 


12. San Diego, Cal. .. . 


20 2 


13. Los Angeles, Cal 

14. Seattle, Wash 


20.1 
19.7 


15. Sacramento, Cal, 


19 8 


16. Portland, Ore _ 

17. San Francisco, Cal 


18.8 
18.9 


U. S. as a whole 


17.4 


27.3 







THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 



13 



Distributed by age groups the population is as shown in 
Figure 2. From this figure it will be seen that Salt Lake City 
is essentially a community of young people, there being an 
excess of children and a shortage of those 45 years of age 



UNTTED' STATES 

UNDER 


SALT LAKE CITY 

5 YtARS 


9.9 -a 1 


^i^H^I /r.4% 


5 TO 


14 YEARS 




\S TO 


a4 YEARS 


zo.it 1 


^^^■^■■■1 liO.4% 


33.Z% 3.S TO 
1 


44 YEARS .52.9^ 


1 ■ 

AS TO 


84 VEARS 


is.z-z 1 


^B^^l^l /3.6 


OYER 

4.0 7. 1 


65 YEAR* 
!■ 3.3% 



FIG. 2. AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION. 



or over. The U. S. Census figures gave 4.6 persons to a fam- 
ily and 5.2 persons to a dwelling for the city in 1910. Such 
a condition should mean a live and vigorous city,— a city of 
young people, and with their 'families as yet young. Such a 
community is usually self-reliant and resourceful, and willing 
to provide the best it can afford for its children. 

The following table compares Salt Lake City wdth other 
cities of its size and class in the matter of the proportion of 
children in the total population. 



14 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE NO. 4. 

SHOWING THE PEE CENT AGE OF CHILDREN IN THE 
TOTAL POPULATION. 





Percentage of children 


City. 


5 to 15 years 
of age, in- 
elusive. 


Under 15 
years of 
■ age. 


1. Fall River, Ma^s 

2. Yonkers, N Y 


20.4 % 

18.9 

18.5 

18.1 

17.9 

17.5 

17.2 

17.2 

17.0 

17.0 

16.9 

16.8 

16.8 

16.8 

16.8 

16.6 

15.9 

15.9 

15.6 

15.4 

15.2 

15.2 

15.0 

14.9 

14.6 

14.5 


32.1 % 
29.9 


3. Salt Lake City, Ut 

4. Camden, N. Y 


29.6 

28.4 


5. Lawrence, Mass 


28.3 


6. Cambridge, Mass 

7. New Bedford, Mass 

8. Duluth. Minn 


27.8 
28.9 
26.0 


9. Grand Rapids, Mich 

10. Lowell, Mass 


27.0 
26.8 


11. Youngstown, Ohio 

12. Kansas City, Kan 

13. Bridgeport, Conn 

14. Hartford, Conn 


27.9 
27.9 
27.2 
26.6 


15. Trenton, N. J 


26.6 


16. Des Moines, la 


25.6 


17. Reading, Pa 


27.2 


18. Springfield, Mass 

19. Somerville, Mass 

20. Davton, Ohio 


25.3 
26.0 
24.5 


21. Omaha, Neb 


23.7 


22. Tacoma, Wash. 


23.6 


23. Lvnn, Mass 


24.0 


24. Albany. N. Y 


22.6 


25. Troy, N. Y 


23 2 


26. Spokane, AVash 


23.2 






V. S. as a whole 


17.4 


27 3 







The significance of this large number of children of 
school age may be better appreciated if it be stated that, for a, 
city the size of Salt Lake City (estimated now at 110,000) 
every increase of 1 per cent in the percentage of the popu- 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 



15 



latioii between 5 and 15 (the so-called school age) means 
at least 1,000 more children enrolled in the schools, 30 more 
teachers to be provided for the schools, and approximately 
two more school buildings to be erected within the city. Put 




FIG. 3. PORTLAND, OREGON, AND SALT LAKE CITY 
CO^IPARED AS TO CHILDREN. 
In making the school survey in Portland in 1913, as in Salt Lake 
City in 1915, the number of children actually in the schools early in 
May was taken in each place. Reducing the Portland figures so as to 
give the results if the city were the same size as Salt Lake City 
(110,000) we get the above figure. The black represents the children 
in Portland, and the white represents the excess in each grade for 
Salt Lake City for the same total population. Portland at that time 
had nine grades in its elementary school course. The increased num- 
ber of schools which Salt Lake City must maintain per thousand of 
its population will be at once evident. 



U". SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

nnotluM- way. Salt Lake City must iM'o\ido ."lO per cent 
moro toai'hors aiui Iniildiiiii-s per 1.000 of its total population 
tlian do siu'li oitios as Seattle, Portland. Saeramento, or S'an 
Franeiseo. and lU^ per eent more than do Taeoiua or Denver, 
to be able to niaiiitaiu merely equivalent sehools. This is the 
price the eity must pay for its larixe families and its hirge 
exeess of ehildren. 

Occupations in the city. It was stated on a preeeding 
l>aii-e that Salt Lake C^ity had developed a somewhat independ- 
ent {H^sition for itself along eommereial and industrial lines, 
llisi'h freii^ht rates have eom[H^lled the eity to make many ar*' 
tieles usiuilly brought in from the outside, with the result 
tliat many small industries have been developed which afford 
employment and contribute to the wealth of the conuuunity. 
Sixty-five per cent of the factories of the State of Vtah are 
in Salt Lake City or county, and these factories furnished an 
output in IJn4 valued at $(U.4r'»0,Ol>0. and paid out in wages 
nearly $10,000,000. Located as the city is, and with abund- 
ant raw materials in many lines close at hand, it is a natural 
manufacturing community. 

According to the census tigurcs for 1910, 40.7 per cent 
,>f the total population of the city were engaged in some oe- 
cupation. with the distribution as follows: 

Kngaged in mechanical and maufacturing industries 12.5% 

Knga ged in tra de 7.0 

Kngaged in douu^stie and pei*sonal service 5.4 

Kngaged in transporta tion 4.6 

l\ngaged in clerical occupations -. 4.4 

Kngaged in professional service 3.6 

Engaged in public ser\ice 1.7 

Engaged in extraction of minerals 0,9 

Engaged in agricultural ]uii*suits - 0.6 

Compared with all other American cities. Salt Lake City 
gives the following results for each 1,000 peisons employed, 
distributed by occupation and by sex. 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 



17 



TABLE NO. f). 

NUMBP]R ENGAGED IN EACH OCCUPATION, F'OR EACH 

1,000 EMPLOYED. 



Occupation 


MALES 1 


FEMALES 


In Salt 
Lake City 


In all 
Cities 


In Salt 
Lake City 


In all 
Cities 


1, Manuif'acturing and me- 

chanical industries 

2. Trade 


339 

189 

74 
133 
94 
71 
52 
30 

18 


473 
175 

69 
119 
82 
43 
23 
6 

10 


172 
97 

365 

26 

164 

158 

1 



17 


313 

96 


3. Domestic and personal 
service 


348 


4. Transportation 


IS 


5. Clerical occupations 


135 


6. Professional services 

7. Public service 


88 



8. Extraction of minerals 

9. Agricultural and animal 

husbandry 



2 






Totals 


1000 


1000 


1000 


1000 







An examination of the detailed distribution u'nder any 
one occupation sliows that almost all the industries, trades, 
and forms of service are followed. Under manufacturing and 
the mechanical industries the occupations concerned with the 
building trades predominate, though the machinery trades 
employ quite a large inuml)er of men ; in transportation, the 
railway service predominates; in trade and the clerical occu- 
pations there is a general distribution from clerks and stenog- 
raphers to commercial travellers and retail dealers; while in 
professional service designing and engineering work predom- 
inate. A rather unusual percentage of men, are engaged in 
domestic and personal service. As will be pointed out later 
on, in connection with the discussion of the courses of study in 
the schools, such a distribution of occupations calls for a rather 
varied educational experience in the schools. 

Wealth of the City. We pass finally to a study of the 
real wealth of the community, to see how able it is to pro- 
vide the type of educationi needed for its large number of 



18 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

children. The best basis for comparison here is the average 
actual (not assessed) wealth per capita of the total population. 
To obtain the actual wealth we must take the per capita as- 
sessed wealth, divide it by the basis of assessment, and mul- 
tiply the result by 100. This is the same as putting all cities 
on a 100 per cent basis of assessment, and hence compares their 
actual wealth. Using the figures given in the IT. S. Census 
Bureau's annual publication, Statistics of Cities for 1913,* we 
thus get the following comparative table for the twenty-five 
cities of the size and class of Salt Lake City with which we 
have proposed to compare it. 



"This is the most recent issue of this valuable yearbook. 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 



19 



TABLE NO. 6. 

ASSESSED AND KEAL WEALTH PER CAPITA OF THE 
TOTAL POPULATION. 



^ 


City. 


Assessed 

wealth 

per capita 


Basis of 

assessment 


Real wealth 
per capita 


1 


Camden, N. J 


$ 593.69 
710.43 
553.41 
593.69 
771.65 
789.92 
807.67 
825.33 
846.08 
848.39 
232.15 
944.12 
944.91 
965.00 
985.60 
772.49 
1063.30 
1014.16 
547.64 
1228.76 
742.33 
249.82 
1526.11 
1536.11 
669.77 
589.23 


100 

100 

75 

80 

100 

100 

100 

98 

100 

100 

25 

100 

100 

100 

100 

75 

100 

89 

46 

100 

60 

20 

100 

100 

42 

35 


$ 593.69 


9, 


Trenton, N. J 


710.43 


8 


Reading, Pa. 


737.88 


4. 
5 


Hartford, Conn 

Lowell, Mass 


742.11 
77L65 


6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10 


Fall, River, Mass 

Lawrence, Mass 

Troy, N. Y 

Somerville, Mass 

Lynn, Mass 


789.92 
807.67 
842.18 
846.08 
848.39 


11. 
12. 
13. 
14 


Des Moines, la 

New Bedford, Mass. 

Bridgeport, Conn 

Yonkers, N. Y 


932.60 
944.12 
944.91 
965.00 


15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19 


Kansas City, Kan 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 

Cambridge, Mass 

Albany, N. Y. 

Duluth, Minn. . 


985.60 
1029.99 
1063.30 
1139.51 
1190.52 


20. 


Dayton, Ohio 

Tacoma, Wash 


1228.76 
1237.21 


?p, 


Omaha, Neb 


1249.10 


23. 

24. 

25. 
26. 


Youngstown, Ohio 

Spring-field, Mass 

Spokane, Wash 

Salt Lake City, Ut 


1526.11 
1536.11 
1666.12 
1683.52 


Average for the group 
Median for the group 






$1038.94 
954.96 



This shows Salt Lake City to be the richest city in the 
group. Compared with Camden, F'all River, Lawrence and 
Yonkers, cities which have somewhere near the same percent- 
age of children- (see Table No. 4) Salt Lake City is indeed a 
wealthy city. Compared with western cities Salt Lake City 



20 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



occupies a somewhat middle position, being a little higher than 
the average for the group, and markedly exceeded only by 
Portland, San Francisco, and the three wealthy residential 
cities of southern California. This may be seen from the fol- 
lowing table. 



TABLE NO. 7. 

ASSESSED AND REAL WEALTH PER CAPITA FOR 

WESTERN CITIES* 





x\ssessed 






Citv. 


wealth 


Basis of 


Real wealth 




per capita. 


assessment. 


per capita. 


1. Butte, Mont 


$ 596.91 


75 


$ 795.88 


2. San Jose, Cal 


648.61 


60 


1081.02 


3. Denver, Colo 


563.25 


50 


1126.50 


4. ColoradoSprings. 








Colo 


400.77 
742.33 


33 

60 


1202.31 


5. Tacoma, Wash 


1237.22 


6. Berkeley, Cal 


822.68 


60 


1371.13 


7. Oakland, Cal 


738.96 


50 


1477.92 


8. Seattle, Wash 


721.24 


45 


1602.77 


9. Spokane, Wash ... 


699.77 


42 


1666.12 


10. Salt Lake City, 








Utah 


589.23 

1042.03 


35 

58 


1683.52 


11. Sacramento, Cal... 


1796.60 


12. Pasadena, Cal 


1280.94 


66 


1921.41 


13. Portland, Ore 


1212.40 


63 


1924.44 


14. Los Angeles, Cal. 


880.20 


46 


1930.87 


15. San Francisco, 








Cal 


1193.32 
1051.05 


45 
39 


2561.82 


16. San Diego, Cal 


2695.00 


Average for the group 






$1630.85 


Median for the group 






1634.45 



*Ogden unfortunately cannot be included in this table, for the rea- 
son that the United States Census Bureau does not publish financial 
statistics for cities which in 1910 had a population of less than 30,000. 

These two tables show Salt Lake City as of large per cap- 
ita wealth, even though the number of children in the total 
population is large. If the city had the usual small proportion 
of children found in western cities, it would almost equal 



THE PROBLEM BEFORE US 21 

Pasadena, Portland, or Los Angeles in its per capita wealth. 
As it is, it must be classed as among one of the few very rich 
cities of the United States. When we remember, further, that 
the city has very few really rich people, we can appreciate 
what a wide distribution of property there must be among the 
population. It is essentially a city of the so-called middle 
class. This should make the maintenance of any public enter- 
prise, such as schools, a relatively easy matter. 

The city and. its needs. We have then, for study, a rap- 
idly growing western city of the best type. It is a city which, 
by reason of its comparative isolation, has developed aoi inde- 
pendence for itself which few cities are able to do or feel the 
need of doing. Its population is, as yet, very largely al the 
best American and foreign stocks, though a change in its char- 
acter is beginning. 

The city is a city of young people, of large families, and 
of large per capita wealth. The pinch of competition, which in 
most places has led to a somewhat general reduction in the 
size of families, has been scarcely felt here. There is still 
plenty of elbow room and opportunity. The city has the vigor 
and the confidence in itself which belongs to youth. 

The location of Salt Lake City makes it certain that it has 
a large future before it. This, the needs of its occupations 
and its industries, the general needs in our national life for 
good education, for all, its large number of children of good 
stock, and the increasing number of children coming from 
homes of an inferior type, — all alike make it important that 
this particular city maintain for its children as good an educa- 
tional system as it can possibly afford. Its large wealth, and, 
as will be shown later, its low per capita expense for city main- 
tenance, make it possible for the city to afford as good an edu- 
cational system as is to be found anywhere in the land. 

Order of procedure. Having now examined somewhat in 
detail the character and position of Salt Lake City among 
cities of its size and class, we shall next pass to an examination 
of the organization of its educational system, the scope and 
needs o'f the system provided, the school plant and its needs, 
the health and play needs, and the financial problem of the 
system. 



22 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



CHAPTER II. 

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 

(Cub'berley.) 

General state control. To provide for the education of its 
children the State of Utah has, in its constitntioii. made the 
maintenance of a general system of public schools a state duty, 
and has charged the legislature to provide for the establish- 
ment and maintenance of schools in all parts of the state. The 
public school system is, in the constitution, declared to include 
all schools from the kindergarten to and through the state 
university. Certain permanent funds to aid in the support of 
schools are dedicated to the purposes, the general control of 
the system is vested in a state board of education and a state 
superintendent of public instruction, rates of taxation for state 
aid for education are fixed, and the separate organization and 
control of city school systems is provided for. 

The educational provisions of the constitution of the state 
have been amplified in the school law, Avhich now forms a sub- 
stantial A'olume of one hundred and forty printed pages. The 
powers and duties of the state board of education and of the 
state superintendent of public instruction have been specified, 
in some detail; the counties of the state have been organized 
into county-unit organizations, under the educational over- 
sight of county superintendents of schools; cities of the first 
and second class have been allowed to organize separately 
under city boards of education, and the powers and duties of 
such have been laid down at some length; the schools have 
been made free to all. and the attendance of all children be- 
tween the ages of eight and sixteen years has been made com- 
pulsory for thirty weehs each year in cities, and twenty weeks 
elsewhere in the state. 



ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEM 23 

Carrying- out the state purpose. Education in Utah, as in 
practically all other American states, has been conceived as 
something of such great importance to the future welfare of 
the state tliat it has not been felt safe to entrust it to the 
cities to manage. Education has been regarded as a "major 
claim" of each new generation on the one that has gone 
before, — a form of debt which each generation owes to the new 
generation it brings into the world, — and as such the state has 
not been willing to trust entirely the carrying out of this 
important obligation' to local governmental units. Accord- 
ingly the state has provided by general law for many details 
of local school administration, and has given boards of educa- 
tion power, within certain legal limits, to determine the sums 
needed for carrying out properly this state purpose. The 
qualifications of members for boards of education, how they 
shall be elected, when they shall take office, how they may be 
removed, their compensation, the duties of the officers of the 
board, the department officers they may appoint, the general 
corporate powers of the board, their general powers and duties, 
hoAv they shall estimate the city school tax, under what condi- 
tions and how they may incur indebtedness and issue bonds, 
and how they may erect school buildings, — all these matters 
are laid down, in some detail, in the school laws of the state, 
instead of being left to the different cities to determine. 

The board of education, elected by the people to represent 
it in the management of their schools, in reality represents 
the state much more than it does the city. The state purpose 
of seeing that its future citizenship is properly- educated is the 
important thing; the city is merely an agent of the state in 
the matter. The powers possessed by the board of education 
are derived from the state, and not from the city; the state 
can add to or subtract from these, as it wills, or it could 
abolish the board of education entirely and substitute some 
other agency to do its work. If the board needs new or addi- 
tional powers it must ask the legislature for them; if its funds 
are not sufficient for the work the legislature has given it to 



24 SrilOOL Sl'KVKY REPORT. 

do, il. luust pi\\S(Mit its oaso to tlie loirislaturo, and ask for an 
iiuToaso in tlio S(.'liO(>l tax rate. 

A boiU'd's proper functions. The board of oduoatiou, 
aotini^- as a body. oousoiiiuMilly acts for the stato in the matter 
of school control. Since tlie people of the city are also citizens 
of the state, — in the case of Salt Lake City they constitute 
one fonrih ol' the citi/.ens oi' the entire state, — the board of edu- 
cation also re[M"eseuts the citizens of the city as mcII. It rep- 
resents tliein, lunvever, in their capacity as citizens of the state 
of I'lah, rather than as citizens of Salt Lake City. 

It represents them, thouiiii. not individnally. but as a body, 
and only \\ hen in fornuil session. It is only by formal and 
recorded vote that boards o\' education can properly exercise 
any eontrol. All individual direction of the schools, unless 
such individual power is formally delegated to the individual 
member by vote of the board, is usurped direction. For such 
individual direction the state has provided other officers, who 
devote tluMr entire time to the work, and who are much more 
likely to direct the schools wisely and well. When a board of 
education directs the work of the schools properly, carefully 
selecting its executive officers, sustainiugr them in their official 
acts, and rcplaciuir them Avhencver they fail to act wisely or 
efficiently or honestly, it renders a conspicuous service to the 
people of the conuuunity and to the state it serves. 

AVheuevcr. on the contrary, the board assumes executive 
as well as legislative functions, begins to participate in exec- 
utive work instead of acting as a board for school control, and 
interferes with or usurps work which it should entrust to its 
executive ottlcers, it almost invariably begins to lose the con- 
ddence of those whose confidence it should retain. The prin- 
cipals and teaehei*s. and ultimately the people as well, lose 
contidence in its wisdom, with the inevitable result that the 
efficiency of the schools themselves is impaired. A funda- 
mental principle of prv>per city school administration is that 
it is primarily the business of the board of education to receive 
reports as to conditions and needs, to weigh recommenda- 



ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEM 25 

tions, to determine the broader lines of policies, and to legis- 
late, while it is primarily the business of the executive officers 
it employs to execute the legislation and policies which the 
board, after hearing reports and deliberating, has decided 
upon. 

It will be seen from the above statement of principles that 
a board of education for a city school system occupies a very 
important position, and that upon its good judgment as to what 
to do and what to let alone depends much of the success of 
the administration of the schools. By improper organization, 
by doing too much, by attempting to handle too many things, 
by interfering too much with the work of its executive officers, 
or by indecision as to purpose, a board of education may inter- 
fere seriously with the proper working of the schools under 
its control, with the esprit de corps of those who render service 
in its schools, and with the proper carrying out of that large 
and important state purpose for which they were elected to 
office. 

The Salt Lake City organization. To carry out the state 
purpose in 'Salt Lake City the city has been classified by law 
as a city of the first class, and for the government of the 
schools in cities of the first class a board of education, con- 
sisting of ten members, two elected from each municipal ward 
in the city, has been provided. The term of office is four 
years, one member being elected from each municipal ward in 
December of the odd-numbered years. The school corporation 
is separate and distinct from the municipal corporation with 
which it is here coterminous. So fully has this separation 
been accomplished that in the city auditor's reports, covering 
the different departments and phases of work of the Salt 
Lake City corporation, the school department does not appear. 
The school district is a state corporation, existing for the 
carrying out of a state purpose ; the city is a local organization 
primarily for local municipal government. They are separate 
and distinct corporations, though their boundaries and elec- 
torate are one and the same. 

The board of education has provided, under its rules and 



26 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

regulations, for the appointment of five standing eouimittees, 
each consisting of five members and the president of the board. 
These standing committees are (1) Rules, (2) School Law, 
(3) Teachers and School Work, (J:) Building and Grounds, and 
(5) Finance. A careful reading of the minutes of the board 
for more than a year would seem to indicate that the first two 
committees are not especially important ones, but that the 
other three are committees which transact a large amount of 
business and assume many important functions. 

The board has further orgtinized the administration of the 
school system under three separate and distinct departments. 
These are (1) the clerical and purchasing department, in 
charge of a School Clerk, (2) the building department, in 
charge of a Superintendent of Buildings, and (3) the educa- 
tional department, in charge of a Superintendent of Schools. 
A Treasurer is also appointed, to care for and pay out the 
school moneys. 

Committees and departments. As far as could be ascer- 
tained by inquiry, by a reading of the official minutes of the 
proceedings of the board, and by au examination of the printed 
Tules and regulations of the board of education, these three 
departments seem to be on a plane of tlieoretical equality, 
each handling the business within its own field somewhat inde- 
pendently of the other two. The School Clerk works largely 
through the Committee on Finance, the Superintendent of 
Buildings largel.y through the Committee on Buildings a"nd 
Grounds, and the Superintendent of Schools largely through 
the Committee on Teachers and School AYorlc. These commit- 
tees then report to the board of education, which serves as a 
co-ordinating body for the three separate administrative de- 
partments and the three important board committees. In 
effect, three separate boards exist, each large enough to be a 
board of education in itself, and each handling an important 
division of the educational work of the city. To harmonize 
results the three boards meet together as a body, after they 
have come to independent decisions. 



28 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

The diagram on the preceding page shows the existing 
form of organization, and the existing relationships. The 
board of education is shown as large and important, as it now 
is. Below it and intermediary between it and the heads of 
its departments are the board committees, and then come the 
heads of departments and their staffs. The position of any 
person on the diagram indicates his authority and responsi- 
bility to those below him and above him, and the connecting 
lines indicate lines of relationship and responsibility. A lack 
of connecting lines in the same way indicates lack of co- 
ordinating authority or responsibility. 

Present organization wrong in principle. The inevitable 
result of such an arrangement is frequent and long committee 
meetings, much discussion, and board meetings often lasting 
until late at night. The constant tendency under such a 
system of administration is for the committees to become very 
important administrative bodies, and for the chairman of each 
to usurp some or many of the functions of the executive heads 
of departments. Especially is this likely to prove dangerous 
in the. case of the Committee on Teachers and School Work, 
the chairman of which is very likely, almost unconsciously, to 
take over many of the functions that properly belong to the 
Superintendent of Schools and to become, as it were, a second 
head of the educational department ; passing, in turn, on all 
the superintendent's recommendations as to teachers, prin- 
cipals, and supervisory officers, and substituting his opinion 
or the opinion of his committtee for that of the superintendent 
as to the employment, retention, and service of members of the 
educational force. 

The present organization is not only wrong in principle, 
but it is fraught with continual danger of misunderstandings 
and trouble. The committees are too prominent in the admin- 
istration, and the school clerk and the superintendent of 
buildings enjoy too large independence in action. An exam- 
ination of the printed annual reports of the board for a number 
of years past would seem to indicate that the school clerk is 



ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEM 29 

the real head of the school system, rather than the superin- 
tendent of schools. His reports come first and are the most 
elaborate, and he rather than the superintendent of schools 
discusses the question of finances and says what he thinks as 
to possible economies.* The present large independence of 



*By way of illustration the following quotation from the clerk's 
report to the board, printed in the 24th annual report (1913-14) p. 16, 
may be cited. 

"For twenty years the cost per pupil has been steadily increas- 
ing', and if the special efforts put forth this year have stayed that 
advance, and in fact reduced the cost per pupil, there is no doubt 
that much more could be accomplished by continuing the efforts for 
a more efficient and economical administration of our school 
system." 

Such a statement, well intended no doubt, is nevertheless mislead- 
ing, and only ,serves to raise hopes that cannot be realized without 
impairing the efficiency of the system. An analysis of the tables sub- 
mitted in the clerk's report shows that the reduction in cost mentioned 
was only made by employing cheaper teachers, increasing the number 
of pupils per teacher, and reducing the expenses for renewals and re- 
pairs. Such reductions could not be continued without seriously impair- 
ing the efficiency of the schools, yet the statement as printed leaves the 
opposite inference. As a matter of fact, the reduction in expenses by 
such means has gone too far now, and the printing of such a statement 
tends to make more difficult a change in the right direction. All such 
statements should meet with the approval of the superintendent of 
schools before being given to the puplic, and only serve to emphasize 
the necessity of having one and only one head to the administrative 
system. 

the superintendent of buildings, especially in the matter of 
repairs and alterations and the employment of janitors, is also 
fundamentally wrong, and is certain to result in expenditures 
which ought not to be made, and in the failure to perform 
work which ought to be performed. That it has done so is 
well pointed out in Chapter X. 

One gets the idea from reading a few years of the annual 
printed reports and the rules and regulations of the board that 
the educational department in the Salt Lake City school system 
occupies a rather inferior position in the administrative organ- 
ization, and that it is allowed to exercise but little supervisory 
control over the other administrative departments. Only the 
compulsory attendance work is specifically placed under the 
direction of the superintendent of schools. The underlying 
theory seems "to be that the educational department is a sep- 



30 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

arate aud isolated department instead of being the premier 
department of the whole system. 

Right principles in school organization. A thoroughly 
fundamental principle in all proper school organization and 
administration is that there should be a real unity in the 
organization and a responsibility to one head in the adminis- 
tration, aud that the head of the school system should be no 
other than the superintendent of schools. Through him, as 
the head of tlio school system, the board should Avork. The 
educational dcartment is not a minor or a subordinate or 
even a co-ordinate department, but is the one for which all 
the other departments exist. All forms of administrative 
machinery, anc* 'vll officers of control aud department heads, 
exist for the pri»oe purpose of assisting the educational depart- 
ment to get tejvehers and children together under the best 
possible educati<mal conditions. Some departments have, in 
addition, as one ''f their important purposes that of saving 
money for the educational department, and of detiectiug as 
large a percentage as possible into the work of actual instruc- 
tion. Every overcharge detected by the clerk, every dollar 
saved in the pur'^hase of supplies, every economy elfected in 
the erection or repair of school buildings, is added money for 
increasing the eH"''^''^Liveness of the instruction in the schools. 
The only excuse for having a clerical, purchasing, or building 
department is that such may serve the educational department. 

In all well organized school systems this relationship is 
clearly recognized, and these officials work under the direction 
anci report through the superintendent of schools. The board 
then deals largely with the superintendent, and holds him 
responsible for results and efficient service. T^lienever the 
superintendent is not able to secure these, or to retain the 
confidence of the board of education as a body, the board 
should consider a change in its executive head. It should not 
retain the executive and take his work away from him. 

A proper administrative organization, A proper reorgan- 
ization of the work in Salt Lake Citv would be as shown in the 








k 


01 

a. 

It 








i 



32 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

second diagram given. This shows the position, relative 
importance, and lines of relationship and authority which 
should exist in city school organization and administration in 
a city such as Salt Lake City. The superintendent of schools, 
rather than the bocird of education, should be the central 
co-ordinating authority, and the work of the board committees 
should be materially reduced in consequence. The school 
clerk and the superintendent of buildings, while still working 
with their proper committees, and still having somewhat inde- 
pendent powers of action in their respective fields, should 
nevertheless be under the co-ordinating authority and should 
report through the superintendent of schools. 

Directions given or work assigned to the school principals 
by the school clerk, or to the school janitors by the superin- 
tendent of buildings, should be subject to the approval of the 
superintendent of schools; school supplies should be purchased 
only after first conferring with the superintendent of schools 
as to quality and kind and relative amounts; repairs and 
alterations to school buildings should only be made after 
approval as to nature and cost by the superintendent ; and 
financial estimates should be made and submitted through the 
responsible head o'f the school system. Such a reorganization 
in control, if coupled with the adoption of certain new rules 
tending to place proper responsibility with the executive offi- 
cers employed by the board, would materially reduce the 
number and the length of the present committee meetings, and 
the necessity for the board spending such a large amount of 
time in serving as a co-ordinating body for the present separate 
departments and committee control. 

The public and the superintendent. The superintendent 
of schools should be made the responsible head of the whole 
school system. As a matter of fact he is really held as such 
by both the board of education and the public. If expenses 
mount up too rapidly, if the school accounts are not properly 
kept, if the supplies furnished the schools are poor or inade- 
quate or are too lavishly provided, if the school buildings are 



ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEM 33 

not ol the right type or cost too much, if they are not properly 
eared for and made available when needed, if the expense for 
building upkeep is too high, if harmony among the different 
officers and parts of the school system does not prevail, if 
the work of the schools is not up to standard, or if a dozen 
other possible things do or do not come to pass, the board and 
the public rightly tend to hold the superintendent of schools 
to be the responsible person. Even in many matters by law 
under board control, the public nevertheless looks to the super- 
intendent as the responsible party. 

This should mean that the superintendent of schools 
should be made the actual as well as the nominal head of the 
school system, and then should be held to strict accountability 
for its successful operation. This is the method followed in 
all successful corporation control. This should also mean 
that his recommendations on matters which he is supposed to 
know more about than members o'f the board possibly can 
should not be turned down, except after the most careful con- 
sideration. In all matters relating to the appointment, promo- 
tion, transfer, and dismissal of teachers, principals, and super- 
visory officers, the initiative should rest absolutely with him, 
and only in cases of great importance should the board reject 
his recommendations. In no case should any board member 
be privileged to substitute a name of his own choice. 

No board member is competent to pass on such matters, 
and attempts to do so not only lead to fundamental educa- 
tional mistakes but, what is even more serious, tend to demor- 
alize a teaching force. If a teaching force is to possess esprit 
de corps and be devoted to its work, it must have confidence 
in its leaders and in their ability to protect them from injus- 
tice and mismanagement. Whenever a board of education is 
unwilling to continue to place this confidence in its superin- 
tendent the time has come for a change, either in the super- 
intendent or in the board. Similarly, in all matters relating to 
courses of instruction and studies the superintendent should be 
in full control. On no other basis can he be responsible for the 
successful conduct of the schools. 



34 SCHOOL SURVEY KEPOKT 

By the luoi'o adoption of such miles of proeediire, -whieli 
are based on sound administrative practice, the work and 
importance ol' the committee on teachers and scliool work 
wouU^ bo greatly redueed. and every member of the school 
board would be freed from what is, perhaps, the g-reatest an- 
noyance a school board member is subjected to. To all appli- 
cants for positions, to all disgruntled teachers and principals, 
and to all interested friends, the board members eould at onee 
tell them to see the superintendent of schools, as full control 
of all such matters had been placed in his hands. In placing 
full responsibility there the board would only be doing what 
the board o'f directors of any well-managed sngar factory, 
cement plant, department store, or street railway continually 
does. The key to efficient management lies in the concentra- 
tion of both authority and responsibility in trained executive 
officers, and the refusal of the directors of the corporation to 
interfere with its experts in technical matters relating to the 
administration of the property. 

A more fundamental reorganization desirable. The above 
changes in organization and responsibility can be nmde by the 
board on its own initiative, and Avithout change in existing 
law. All that is necessary is a change in its rules. The organ- 
ization and administration of the school system could be still 
further improved by a new state law for the administration of 
school systems in cities of the first class. As some changes in 
existing laws are necessary, if the schools of Salt Lake City are 
not to be seriously cramped in the future, it is possible that 
all the changes might be obtained from the legislature at the 
same time. 

The desirable changes should include a reduction of the 
board of education from a board of ten, elected from wards, to 
one of five elected from the city at large. .However well it 
may have worked in Salt Lake City, the ward system is never- 
theless undesirable and has been abandoned by many cities. 
The almost universal experience has been that board mem- 



ORGANIZATION OF SCHOOL SYSTEM 35 

bers have averaged higher from the city at large than when 
selected along ward lines, and petty local politics and local 
feelings influence the board less in its actions. The school 
system of a city is a unit, and board members should represent 
this larger unit and not some portion of it. So far, we are 
informed, the ward system has worked out well in Salt Lake 
City, but sooner or later, with the growth and change in char- 
acter of the city, it is almost certain to bring undesirable mem- 
bers to the board. It should be abandoned now before bad 
results begin to be' too evident. 

The board at present, also, is too large. A board of five, 
one that could meet in a smaller room and around a single 
table, and with more board and less committee action, would 
handle the educational business more quietly, more expedi- 
tiously, and more efficiently than a board of ten members can, 
and with fewer conflicts with its executive officers and fewer 
reversals of its actions. A large board almost always leads to 
unnecessary discussion, and often has to reverse itself. A 
board of five, one elected each year as now and for a five-year 
term, would represent a better form of educational organiza- 
tion. With the smaller board the present great waste of time 
in committee action could be obviated, as a board of five has 
no need for standing committees. Business will be transacted 
better if all committees are temporary, and if the board acts on 
the recommendation of its executive officers first and finally as 
a body. 

Summary of recommendations. The survey commission 
accordingly recommends that the rules and regulations of the 
board of education be revised along the lines of the recom- 
mendations of this chapter; that co-ordinating authority and 
responsibility for proper administration be concentrated in one 
executive head; that committee action be materially decreased 
by placing larger responsibility with the board's executive 
officers ; and that, at the first legislative opportunity, a re- 
vision of the state school law as it relates to cities of the first 
class be attempted, and along the lines of the suggested law 
given in the 'Appendix to this report. 



36 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



CHAPTER HI. 

A mux I ST RATION OF THE EDUCATIONAL DEPART- 
MENT. 

(Cubberley.^ 

Having uow located the city we are to study, and having 
described the educational organization which the legislature of 
the state and the board of education for the city have created 
for the purpose of carrying out the state mandate as to schools, 
we shall turn next to a study of the organization and admin- 
istration of the educational department, and from this pro- 
ceed to a study of the work of the schools themselves. The 
building department will be considered more fully in Part III 
of this report, while the tinaneial portion of the problem will 
be taken up again in Part IV. 

Work of the educational department. In a city which is 
growing as rapidly as is Salt Pake City, the problem of ade- 
quately caring for all the children becomes a pressing one. In 
the twenty-four years since the unitication of the schools under 
one city board, the school census and the enrollment in the 
schools have trebled, while the number of children in average 
membei-ship has quadrupled. During the same period the 
number of teachers employed has increased six times. Within 
the past decade there has been a general increase of about 
forty per cent in all these items. During the past five years 
the gain in enrollment has averaged 20 children a week for a 
tifty-two week year, and during the past two years it has 
averaged 23 children a week. This means, on the last two 
years of growth, that three new twelve class-room school build- 
ings must be opened every year to accommodate the increase in 
children enrolled in the schools. The pressure to provide 
teachers, class rooms, supervision, and teaching supplies puts 



THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 



37 



a strain on the administrative organization and resources of 
a city that is growing at such a rate. 

The prime purpose of the educational department is to see 
that the teachers and children are brought together under as 
good conditions 'for instruction as is possible. This involves 
buildings, lighting, heating, ventilation, apparatus and supplies, 
playgrounds, and teachers, of course, but it also involves an 











■y 


















r:^^ 


C^-^^ 


^ 


3CHOOLCttiSH5 




5Crt00t5 




xy^ 


-^ — TmeWge ^ 


^l^ABE.R^*^^*^ 






^ 











'^0,000 

Children 






C\ 0\ (K O, 



Oi 0\ Ov 0\ (h 0\ 



FIG. 6. A QUARTER CENTURY OF GROWTH IN THE 
SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOLS. 



intelligently-conceived educational purpose, and a system of 
school administration and supervision calculated to secure the 
best educational results each supervisory officer, teacher, and 
child is capable of giving. An important test of a system of 
school supervision is how far it brings out the best which each 
one connected with the system has to give. In this chapter we 
shall examine into the sufficiency and the character of thd 
system of supervision in force with reference to its ability to 
secure these "larger ends. 



38 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

The supervisory staff. At the head of the educational 
department is a superintendent of schools, and to assist him 
in his work of supervising the instruction the following staff 
has been employed : 

1 Supervisor of grammar grades. 

1 Supervisor of primary grades. 

1 Supervisor of physical education. 

1 Supervisor of manual training. 

1 Director of physical education for elementary schools. 

1 Director of art and hand work in the primary grades. 

1 Director of domestic science and arts. 

1 Supervising principal of high schools. 

2 Principals of high schools. 

28 Principals of elementary schools. 

38 Total. 

One of the first questions that naturally arises is as to 
the adequacy or inadequacy of this force. One method of 
answering this question is to compare Salt Lake City with 
other cities, to see where it stands in the matter of supervisory 
assistance. Compared with the same western cities used in 
Table No. 3 we obtain the following table, from which it is 
seen that the supervisory staff at present employed is cer- 
tainly moderate. 



THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 

TABLE NO. 8. 



39 



NUMBER OF PUPILS IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE 
FOR EACH SUPERVISORY OFFICER.* 

I. WESTERN CITIES. 



City. 



Colorado Springs, Colo. 

Sacramento, Cal 

Pasadena, Cal 

San Diego, Cal 

Butte, Mont 

Ogden, Utah 

Tacoma, Wash 

Los Angeles, Cal 

San Jose, Cal 

Average for the group. 



Pupils per 
super- 
visory 
officer. 



208 
252 
262 
283 
296 
312 
331 
333 
365 
'354" 




Spokane, Wash 

San Francisco, Cal.. 

Seattle, Wash 

Denver, Colo 

Berkeley, Cal 

Oakland, Cal 

Salt Lake City, Utah 
Portland, Ore 



Median for the group. 



Pupils per 
super- 
visory 
officer. 
^369 
397 
400 
423 
433 
445 
460 
513 

^365 



II. EASTERN AND MIDDLE-WESTERN CITIES. 



City. 


Pupils per 
super- 
visory 
officer. 

182 

227 

269 

291 j 

341 

359 

360 

371 


City. 


Pupils per 
super- 
visory 
officer. 


Trenton, N. J 

Troy, N. Y 


Albany, N. Y 

Duluth, Minn 

Omaha, Neb 

Yonkers, N. Y 

Dayton, Ohio 

Salt Lake City, Utah. . 

Springfield, Mass 

Lowell, Mass 


372 
381 
400 
445 
446 
460 
464 
479 


New Bedford, Mass 

Des Moines, Iowa 

Youngstown, Ohio 

Grand Rapids, Mich . . . 

Kansas City, Kan 

Camden, N. J 


Average for the group . 343 | 


Median for the group. . | 371 



Data by which a comparison with all the twenty-five cities 
used in Table No. 1 could be made is not available, as some of 
the cities failed to report the number of supervisory officers 
separately, and some use a group system for principalships 



''This and the following- table have been compiled from data 



fo 



40 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

which makes comparison impossible. The figures given for 
such eastern and middle-western cities used in Table 1 as 
are comparable make a showing similar to that for western 
cities with reference to the position of Salt Lake City in the 
matter of supervision. 

The conclusion from these figures would certainly be that 
Salt Lake City has too few, rather than too many supervisors. 
If we deduct the school principals, as being primarily building 
supervisors, we have left one supervising principal of high 
schools, who gives but part time to the work, two general 
supervisors of grade work, and five supervisors of special sub- 
jects. This is a number too small for a city with 22,635 chil- 
dren enrolled, and with the character of the teaching force now 
being drawn into the schools. 

The present special supervision. The provision of a super- 
visor of grammar-grade work and a supervisor of primary 
work, instead of two general assistant superintendents of 
schools, is a good point in the 'Salt Lake City system. By 
specializing the work of these two supervisors the tendency to 
become office workers and inspectors, so common in city school 
systems, has been almost entirely obviated. A somewhat care- 
ful investigation of the work of these two supervisors, made 
both in the class room and by an examination of the work 
which they have sent out during the past year to teachers, gave 
the impression that both these persons were making an earnest 
effort to make of themselves helpful supervisors to the teachers 
in the schools. It was the feeling of the members o'f the survey 
staff that the city was getting good returns from the money 
spent on these two supervisors. 

The work of the supervisors of physical education and 
manual training is commented upon at length elsewhere in this 
report. It was the feeling of all the members of the survey 
staff Avho examined at all into the work under their charge that 
the city could do much better by making changes in super- 
visors in these two subjects, and that in the present super- 
vision the city is not getting real value for the money ex- 



THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 41 

pended. It would be better economy to pay larger salaries if 
necessary, and secure persons able to direct the work of these 
two important departments along better educational lines. 

The work seen in domestic science, and in art and hand 
work in the lower grades, gave evidence of good preparation 
and leadership on the part of these directors. It was evident 
that the directors of these subjects were making themselves 
helpful to the schools. 

Further supervisory needs. The number of special super- 
visors at present employed is, however, too small. The num- 
ber is actually less now than it was a few years ago, though 
the number of teachers and pupils have both materially in- 
creased, and the educational problem in the city has become 
more difficult. With the present practice of the city in taking 
cheaper and less well prepared young women for the teaching 
service, commented on at some length in the following chapter, 
and the further objectionable practice of pushing up the num- 
ber of pupils per teacher, the need for good building principals 
and for plenty of good and helpful special supervision can 
hardly be overemphasized. 

There is need in Salt Lake City for the employment of a 
good supervisor of drawing for the grade work. This work is 
too important to be neglected as it now is. A good supervisor 
of vocal and instrumental music, and a director of bands and 
orchestras ought also to be provided. While the music instruc- 
tion in the schools was in general good, there were many places 
where it was not good, while the few feeble attempts at the 
establishment of school orchestras seen, almost entirely due 
to the individual efforts of some principal, were only a sug- 
gestion of what might be done under proper direction. An 
orchestra ought to be developed in each elementary school, and 
a number of elementary school bands also should be organized. 
A community of the size and character of Salt Lake City 
ought to be developed into a musical city, and a community is 
musical only when its people as a mass love music and can 
produce it in some form. Music and drawing are very impor- 



42 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

tant forms of self expression, and self expression is a very 
iinporlant but often neglected element in all education. 

A city the size of Salt Lake City, and of its peculiar type 
and location, also would find a good supervisor of school gar- 
dens, elementary science, and agricultural instruction a good 
investment. School gardening, agricultural instruction, man- 
ual training, and domestic science are all subjects of large 
practical value, and subjects which this school system ought 
to emphasize. As will be pointed out more in detail in Chap- 
ter VIII of this report, an excess of 'time is now devoted to 
instruction in the so-called fundamental subjects, and at the 
expense of these expression subjects. 

With the development of the junior high schools in dif- 
ferent parts of the city, part-time supervision of the work in 
languages, English, history, and science could, with advantage, 
be extended to the seventh and eighth grades, b}'' some one 
designated by the superintendent from these departments in 
the high school, and at little extra expense. 

The worth of supervision. The whole question as to the 
value of special supervision depends upon its character and 
upon the type of special supervisors employed. If the special 
supervision is good, and if the supervisors extend helpful 
assistance to the teachers and make them stronger in their 
work, special supervision always gives large educational re- 
turns. Nothing pays such large dividends in any line of work 
as plenty of good brains at the top. On the other hand, if the 
supervision is poor in quality and inspectorial in character, 
money spent on it is largely money thrown away. Nearly 
everything depends on the character of the supervisors em- 
ployed. Cheap supervision is very likely to be poor super- 
vision, but expensive supervision may not be good supervision. 
It pays a city to offer good salaries for such work, and to make 
its selections from a wide market. As a general proposition, 
though not always true, supervisors from the outside should 
be pre^ferred to the promotion of individuals from within the 
force, because of the new ideas they can bring into the school 
svstem. 



THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 43 

In the choice of all special supervisors, who represent as 
it were a part of the superintendent's cabinet, the entire choice 
should be placed with him, and he should be made to feel that 
he is free to go anywhere to get the right persons for the work. 
In the preceding chapter it was stated as a correct principle 
of action that board members should turn the selection and 
dismissal of all teachers over to the superintendent. Much 
more should this be done in the matter of special supervisors. 
A mistake made l)y board members in selecting a teacher is 
local and isolated, and can be remedied, but a mistake in 
selecting special supervisor?, is widespread in its influence and 
hard to remove. The choice and direction of special super- 
visors requires an expertness of judgment which few laymen 
ever possess, and if board members begin to urge personal can- 
didates for such positions, in opposition to the recommenda- 
tions oif the superintendent, the supervisorial system can soon 
be demoralized and its usefulness in large part destroyed. 

The school principals. The members of the survey staff 
were much pleased with what they saw of the elementary 
school principals, and the work they were doing in the super- 
vision of their schools. Usually the elementary school prin- 
cipalship is the weakest place in the entire school system, and 
one generally finds more dead wood in such positions than in 
any other place. In Salt Lake City this was not the case. On 
the contrary, with a few exceptions, the elementary school 
principals were a good body of supervisory officers, interested 
in their work and professionally awake. Some of them were 
among the most effieient school principals members of the 
survey staff had ever seeu, and their helpfulness to their teach- 
ers and their influence on both teachers and children seemed 
strong and good. One characteristic noted was that, if a 
member of the survey staff arrived at a school building after 
school had begun, he usually had to rin^ the hall bell to find 
the principal. He was somewhere in the rooms, busy with 
his work, instead of sitting in his office. In many school sys- 



44 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

terns one seldom finds a school principal, during school hours, 
off his oflfiee chair. 

Reasons for this difference in Salt Lake City. After some 
investigation the survey staff came to the conclusion that 
much of this efficiency was due to the method of supervising 
the schools and the work of the principals adopted by the 
superintendent and the special supervisors. The principal in 
Salt Lake City has been made the center and the unit for all 
work of building supervision. All special supervisors are 
instructed to work as much as possible through him, and to 
respect and uphold his authority in the school. Outlines and 
circular letters to teachers are to pass through his hands, and 
supervisors are directed to avoid encroaching on his rights and 
prerogatives as the responsible head of his building. Each 
principal has been made to feel that he has a job on his hands 
worthy of his best efforts, and that the responsibility for the 
success of his school rests with him. Many of the principals, 
in talking with members of the survey staff", said that they felt 
under constant pressure from the superi-ntendent to be efficient 
principals and to make a success of their work, or else run the 
risk of being removed from their positions. 

Hence a prominent characteristic of the system of school 
administration employed is its, utilization of the best each prin- 
cipal has in him in the administration of his school. This 
means an individuality among the dift'erent schools which is as 
delightful to see as it is unusual to find. Too many school 
superintendents feel that the way to run a school system is to 
issue orders and regulations, and by this means bring all up 
to that uniform standard which is handed do^^Ti by the super- 
intendent from above. The result is a uniformity in control 
and output Avhich may be pleasing to the superintendent and 
board members who have mechanical minds, but it is the uni- 
formity of death rather than of life. School principals under 
such a system of administration lose their initiative, fail to 
develop any individuality in the administration of their schools. 
and in time become keepere of records, inspectors of work, and 



THE EDUCATIONAL DEPARTMENT. 45 

distributors of chalk and supplies. To see one school in such 
a city system, is to see the type school ; few principals under 
such administrative conditions long retain life enough to hold 
out and remain different from the mass. 

In Salt Lake City just the reverse of this condition was 
the case. Nearly every school visited had something that was 
different, and most of the principals had some new trick in 
administrative control to show. Such a condition can only 
arise under the stimulus of controlled freedom. Sucn con- 
trolled freedom means life to principals, a new stimulus to 
teachers, and strength and vitality to the schools. 

The premium on individual initiative. Though every 
school system ought to be trying some educational experi- 
ments, few school systems do. In Salt Lake City, on the con- 
trary, permission to try any worthy experiment is easy to 
obtain. Any principal who has an idea which, to him, seems 
likely to result in an improvement in the instruction in his 
school, feels at liberty to lay it before the superintendent of 
schools and to ask permission to try it. This permission is 
usually granted, though the conditions of control of the exper-_ 
iment are sometimes laid down. The result is that a number 
of good educational experiments were being tried at the time 
of our visit. On questioning school principals, we found that 
many of the commendable features of their schools had arisen 
from some experiment they had been permitted to try in the 
past. In the principals' meetings, held once each month by 
the superintendent, the more important of these experiments 
are reported and their results discussed. We also found in 
existence a Principals' Advisory Committee of five, which 
meets from time to time to consider matters of educational im- 
portance, and which reports its findings and expresses its 
wishes to the superintendent of schools. 

Such a liberal plan in school administration is to be highly 
commended. The good results of it on the school system were 
evident to all the members of the survey staff. If asked to 
name the one thing in which the Salt Lake City system of 



46 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

school administration is superior to most other systems, we 
should say it is in this absence of a deadening uniformity 
imposed from above, and in the premium which is placed on 
initiative from below. It was one of the best features the 
survey staff found in the Salt Lake City school system. 

It was the unanimous feeling of the members of the survey 
staff that the system of administrative control of supervisors 
and principals employed by the superintendent, and of princi- 
pals and teachers by the other supervisory officers, was excel- 
lent both in theory and results. In brief, the system seemed 
based on the theory that the board placed the responsibility 
for the success of the school system on the superintendent of 
schools; he in turn placed the responsibility for the success 
of each part or school on the special supervisor or the building 
principal in control ; these in turn placed the responsibility for 
the successful conduct of each room upon the teacher in 
charge; and she in turn placed the responsibility for the suc- 
cess o'f that room upon each pupil in it. The members of the 
survey staff saw many evidences, extending all the way from 
the children in the rooms to the special supervisors, of the 
wisdom and value of this very liberal method of supervisory 
control from above. 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 



47 



CHAPTER IV 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 

(Cubberley) 



Growth of the School System. The drawing below shows 
in graphic form the growth of the Salt Lake City school sys- 
tem in the matter of the number of pupils remaining in aver- 
age memxbership throughout each school year, and the num- 
ber of teachers who have been employed to teach these same 
pupils. The curves do not show the still larger number of 
pupils enrolled, but who did not remain in membership in 
the schools throughout the year. 



20 


1 g g. s 


s g S; ^ s § 5 g y s g S ^- § 


n n n 












/ 
























/\ 






^^^ 


^ 


/ 


% 










.1^ 












/ / 




cpto^' 








/ / V- 










n 


% 











FIG 7. A QUARTER CENTURY OF GROWTH IN CHIL- 
DREN IN SCHOOL AND TEACHERS EMPLOYED. 



48 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

A glance at the d rawing, and at the figures giving the 
number of pupils in average membership in the schools for 
each teacher employed for the ditferent years, reveals the 
history of the efforts of the school board to supply teachers 
for the schools. This average number of pupils per teacher 
has been obtaiiuul by the usual method of dividing the total 
average uuMubtM'sliip in the schools by the total number of reg- 
ular and special teachers, principals, and supervisors employ- 
ed. If only elementary-school class-room teachers -were used 
the numbers Avould be nuich higher. 

During the first eight years shown on the chart but little 
effort was made to reduce the number of pupils per teacher. 
By 1897-98, nmny teachers must have been trying to teach as 
many as fifty children. During the next eight years, that is 
from 1897-98 to 1905-06. due to the combined influence of a 
falling off in the rate of increase in pupils and a somewhat 
constant increase in the number of teachers employed for the 
schools, the number of pupils per teacher decreased to about 
what it is at present. From 190.3-0(3 to 1911-12, but especially 
during the last two years of this period, the school board 
seems to have made a determined effort to reduce the size of 
classes, finally succeeding in bringing the school average doAvn 
to 27.7. This still meant many classes of forty to forty-five chil- 
dren enrolled, and with an average daily attendance of from 
thirty-five to forty. During 1912-13, however, the number of 
teachers employed was actually reduced by twenty-two. and this 
in the face of an increase in school enrollment of 713, and an 
increase in average membership of 730. Since this time the 
number of pupils per teacher has been allowed to increase, 
until it reached 32.3 in 1914-15, and this notwithstanding an 
increase of 33 per cent in the number of high school teachers 
employed during the past two years, incident to the opening 
of the new East Side High School. Furthermore, it is the 
announced intention to increase the size of classes still fur- 
ther, during 1915-1(1, by employing but few additional teach- 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 



49 



ers. Elementary-school classes will soon be up to forty-five 
children at this rate. 

In 1914-15, for which we have segregated figures, the 
average membership of 32.3 per teacher, based on the total 
number of all kinds of teachers employed, meant an average 
enrollment of 'forty and an average membership of thirty-five 
in the elementary schools, and an average membership of 
22.3 in the high schools. These figures for the elementary 
schools are high, 28 to 30 pupils in average membership being 
nearer what the elementary schools should average. With the 
tendency to employ less experienced and cheaper teachers, as 
will be pointed out further on in this chapter, this tendency 
to increase classes cannot be continued without a serious im- 
pairment of the quality of the instruction in the schools. 

Position of Salt Lake City as to teachers. To show the 
position of Salt Lake City in the matter of teachers employed, 
compared with other western cities, the following table has 
been compiled. 



TABLE NO. 9. 

NUMBER OF PUPILS IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE 

PER TEACHER EMPLOYED, IN ALL SCHOOLS. 



City. 


Teacher 
average 


City. 


Teacher 
average 


Pasadena Cal 


19.2 
24.6 
24.9 
25.0 
25.8 
25.9 
26.7 
27.2 
27.2 


Portland, Ore 


28.7 
2?.0 
29.5 
30.3 
30.7 
31.0 
33.6 
33.8 


Berkeley, Cal 


Colorado Springs, Colo. 

Spokane, Wash 

Salt Lake City, Utah.. 
Oakland, Cal 


Sacramento, Cal 

Los Angeles, Cal 

Denver, Colo 


Butte, Mont 


San Jose, Cal 


San Diego, Cal 

Ogden, Utah 


San Francisco, Cal. . . . 
Tacoma, Wash 


Seattle, Wash 








Average for the group. 

Excess of Salf Lake 

City above average . . 


27.9 
2.4 


Median for the group. 27.2 
Excess of Salt Lake 

City above median. .| 3.1| 



50 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

To compare Salt Ijake City with the other western cities 
on the same basis, the number of principals and supervisory 
ott'icers employed has iirst been deducted in each ease. The 
tigures are based ou the last published reports of the U. S. 
Commissioner of Education, except for Salt Lake City, which is 
calculated oii the basis of the figures for 1914-15. 

In other Avords, this table shows that the average size 
of classes in Salt Lake City is 3.1 pupils higher than the 
mediau point for sixteen other western cities. To bring the 
aveirage size of class in Salt Lake City down merely to this 
median would require the employment of sixty-five additional 
teachers, Avithout making any allowance for the normal in- 
crease next September. In view of these figures the an- 
nounced intention to increase the size of classes next year, by 
employing but few new teachers, while it may be necessary 
with the present lack of buildings and funds for school 
maintenance, is nevertheless an undesirable thing to do from 
any educational point of view. 

Other bad features of the teacher situation. Coupled 
with this pushing up of the size of classes, certain other very 
undesirable features are coming in to further complicate the 
educational problem in Salt Lake City. 

In the first place, the number of ungraded rooms m the 
city is being reduced, though the larger the classes become 
and the less experienced the teaching force, the more need 
there is for ungraded rooms and special classes. As will be 
pointed out more in detail in Chapter IX, the city at present 
needs at least fifteen additional teachers for ungraded classes 
in the different elementary schools of the city, and ten addi- 
tional special teachers for retarded and defective children. 
These are minimum needs merely to care properly for present 
conditions. The high degree of retardation in the schools, as 
will also be pointed out in Chapter IX, and especially in a 
number of schools having no ungraded room, would indicate 
the need for lighter rather than heavier loads for the grade 
teachers. 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 



51 



Another undesirable feature of the situation is the tend- 
ency, at present so manifest, to take cheaper and less exper- 
ienced teachers for the schools. Figure 8, giving- the distribu- 
tion of salaries paid elementary-school teachers during 1914-15, 




FIG. 8. DISTEIBUTION OF SALARIES PAID ELEMEN- 
TARY-SCHOOL TEACHERS, 1914-15. 



shows this very clearly. While the minimum salary is nom- 
inally $600, 15.5 per cent of the teachers in the schools have 
been put in, during the past two years, as probationary 
teachers at salaries on which no other than a "home girl" 
could possibly live. That this has resulted in a marked in- 
crease in the number of inexperienced local girls selected for 
teaching positions in the elementary schools is clearly shov/u 
by Figure 9, on the following page. Two-thirds of the ele- 
mentary-school teachers in the city are seen to be "home 
girls." 




TEACHERS IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 




HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS 



FIG 9 WHERE THE TEACHERS' OF SALT LAKE CITY 
HAVE RECEIVED THEIR EDUCATION. 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 



53 



With the isolation under which Salt Lake City to a cer- 
tain extent suffers, this is entirely too high a percentage of 
home talent to have employed. It represents an inbreeding 
process which is certain to weaken the work of the schools 
Salt Lake City would have a very much better teaching force 
in its elementary schools if it drew more extensively on teach- 
ers who have received their training and experience in other 
cities and states. The employment of teachers from the 
outside has been the great strength of the school systems 
of such cities as Seattle, Portland, Oakland, Pasadena, Los 
Angeles and San Diego. For Salt Lake City to follow the 
example of these cities, though, would involve raising the 
minimum salaries for teachers up to about what the median 
now is. The salaries paid high school teachers are better, as 



Jl 



?S'Si 



.—^ 



-^ r-n 



sl2S ooooooooooo 
4 iGO"oO'ooioo'oo<r)>oto 



OoOOOOoOoioOoOoOOO 
Otot^iOO'^O^Ot-'OoOioO'OO 



FIG. 10. DISTRIBUTION OF SALARIES PAID HIGH 
SCHOOL TEACHERS, 1914-15. 



may be seen from Figure 10. which doubtless accounts for 
the greater percentage of outside teachers shown in the lower 
part of Figure 9. 

As the salary schedule in Salt Lake City is graded largely 
on the basis of the number of years of teaching service, the 
great massing of salaries toward the lower end of the scale 
indicate the employment of young and inexperienced teachers. 
Figure 8 shows that 41.6 per cent of the elementary-school 
teachers this past year have been paid $750 or less. Salt 
Lake City is employing for its schools too many girls of little 



54 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



teaching experience. This is further brought out by Figure 
11, which shows that 50 per cent of the teachers in the city 
have been in the schools five vears or less. 



/^t/M5£T OF TttCHlHys 



ZO ZS 30 3S 40 4S 30 SS &0 iS 70 7S 



~^.]^S9 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 1 


1 


"1 ■ — 


■ -1 — 


)590 


Bi 
















1S91 


■ 








j 








]S5Z 


H 








1 








\S93 


■IH 








! 








1?94 


■■ 


















1S95 ^ 


















I?96' 


B 


















)F97 


IH 


















]S3S 


■n 


















\%99 


■IH 


















1900 


MMjl 
















1901 


HHIJ^^B 


i 




1902 


I^^H^HH 












1905 


■■■■■■ 






= 








1904 


■■IHH 






J 905 
1906 


s 


^s 




1907 
19QT 


^^h* 


1 

■ 


1 J\JO 

1909 { 

;9// A 


S= 


ZZaLmm 


191Z^ 
1913 

/9W I 


ss 






^ 




-■ 























FIG. 11. TENURE OF TEACHERS IN SALT LAKE CITY, 
AS' SHOWN BY THE YEAR OF FIRST APPOINT- 
MENT TO THE TEACHING FORCE. 

The Salary Schedules. That teachers' salaries in Salt 
Lake City are low there can be no question. Salt Lake City 
is not a cheap city in which to live, and a public school 
teacher should be paid a salary sufficient to enable her to 
live as a person of education and refinement should. This 
demands a salary large enough to enable the teacher to secure 
a good quiet room in a house where she has regular use of 
a bath, good food, reasonably good clothing, some money for 
books and better-class amusements, something left for sum- 
mer schools and a summer vacation, and a little margin for 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 



55 



the unexpected. $800 a year, considering the training re- 
quired and the cost of living, is low enough ifor a minimum 
in a western city, and $1,200 a year is low enough for a max- 
imum for teachers in elementary schools. For high schools, 
a beginning salary of $900 and a maximum of $1,500, with 
$1,800 to $2,000 for heads of departments, are salaries which 
are not too high when it is remembered that graduation from 
a university is required to enter the work. 

That such salaries are comparable to those paid in other 
western cities where living costs are somewhat similar, and 
where good school systems are maintained, may be seen from 
the following table, comparing teachers' salaries in Salt Lake 
City with salaries paid in the sixteen ether western cities used 
in other tables in this report. 



TABLE NO. 10. 

COMPARATIVE SALARY SCHEDULE IN WESTERN 

CITIES. 



CITY 


TEACHERS 


PRINCIPALS 


Minimum 
Salary 


Maximum 
Salary 


Minimum 
Salary 


Maximum 
Salary 


I. Elementary Schools. 

1. Salt Lake City, Utah.... 

2. Tacoma, Wasli 


$480 
600 
600 
600 
720 
725 
750 
768 
768 
780 
800 
840 
840 
840 
900 
960 


$1020 
960 
960 
1000 
1200 
1100 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1100 
1024 
1050 
1110 
1200 
1200 


$1350 
1140 
1150 
1050 
1400 
1050 
1200 
1200 
1300 
1500 
1200 
2340 
1800 
1440 
1560 
1500 


$2350 
1800 


3. Colorado Springs, Colo. 

4. Spokane, Wash. 


1800 
1800 


5. Denver, Colo 


2000 


6. Portland, Ore 


2150 


7. Butte, Mont 


1700 


8. San Diego, Cai 


2004 


9. Los Angeles, Cal 


2400 


10. Oakland, Cal 


2400 


11. Pasadena, Cal 


2100 


12. San Francisco, Cal 

13. San Jose, Cal 


2460 
1920 


14. Seattle, Wash 


2160 


15. Sacramento, Cal 


1560 


16. Berkeley, Cal 


2280 







56 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE 10, CONTINUED. 

COMPARATIVE SALARY SCHEDULES IN WESTERN 

CITIES. 



CITY. 


Teachers 


Heads of 
Depart- 
ments 
Maximum 




Minimum 
Salary 


Maximum 
Salary 


Principals 


IT. Hish Schools. 

1. Salt Lake City. Utah... 

2. Tacoma, ^^'ash 


$800 
810 
900 
1000 
1020 
1100 
1100 
1150 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1200 
1250 
1260 
1500 


$1400 
1350 
1600 
1600 
1560 
1400 
1500 
1350 
1500 
1600 
1680 
1680 
1500 
1600 
1500 
1730 


$1600 
1600 
1600 
2200 
1680 
1800 
1700 
1600 
1800 
1800 
2160 
1680 
2200 
ISOO 
2100 
2040 


$3800 
2500 


o. Colorado Springs, Colo. 
4. Itonvor. Colo 


1800 


5. Seattle, Wash 


3600 


6. Spokane. Wash 


3300 


7. Tasadena. Cal 


3300 


S. Portland. Ore 


3000 


9. r>erkeley. Cal 

10. San Dies;o. Cal 


3000 
3000 


11. Los Ans;eles, Cal 


3600 


12. Sacramento. Cal 


2300 


13. San Jose. Cal 


3600 


14. Butte. Mont 


3000 


15. Oakland. Cal 


3300 


16. San Francisco, Cal 


3600 



In both olouioutary and soooiidary soUool salaries, as 
shcnvu by tlie abovo table. Salt Lake City pays the lowest iiiin- 
imuiu and also nearly the lowest maximum of any western eity. 
Only in the salaries paid priuoipals should Salt Lake City be 
eommended. 

Comparative Salaries Paid. That the salaries paid teach- 
ers in Salt Lake City are also lower than are paid other 
types of eity employees, and employees in other loeal lines of 
business, may be seen from the foUowinir table giving wage 
scales eommon in Salt Lake City. For purposes of proper 
comparison all have been reduced to a twelve-mouth basis. 



THE TEACHING STAFF. 



57 



TABLE NO. 11. 

WAGE SCALE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF' EMPLOYEES 
IN SALT LAKE CITY. 

PUBLIC SCHOOL EMPLOYEES. 

In elementary schools $ 40.00 to $ 85.00 per month 12 

In high schools 41.66 to 116.66 per month 12 

Department heads in high schools 100.00 to 133.33 per month ? 

School janitors ^ 

CITY EMPLOYEES. 

Policemen $ 80.00 to $112.50 per month 

Firemen 80.00 to 100.00 per month 

Street sweepers 1.75 per day 

Clerks in city offices 75.00 to 100.00 per month 

Stenographers in same 60.00 to 75.00 per month 

Policemen $ Per month 

Firemen, Street Sweepers per month 

Clerks in City and County Offices . . per month 

Stenographers in City and County Offices per month 

BANK EMPLOYEES. 

Head bookkeepers $ 90. to $125. per month 

Assistant bookkeepers 75. to 100. per month 

Collectors 30. to 75. per month 

Tellers 100. to 150. per month 

RAILROAD EMPLOYEES. 

Bookkeepers $ 90. to $110. per month 

Traveling men 100. to 150. per month 

Stenographers and secretaries 50. to 100. per month 

Telegraph operators 85. to 100. per month 

STORE EMPLOYEES. 

Bookkeepers $ 75. to $110. per month 

Clerks, male 60. to 100. per month 

Clerks, female 80. to 60. per month 

Conclusions as to Teachers. It will be seen from the 
tables and charts giveu in this chapter that the number of 
teachers now employed is too small, and that the tendency in 
employment is in the wrong direction; that the schools are 
securing too many inexperienced teachers, from the immed- 
iate neighborhoods, and with purely local outlook and train- 
ing; that the tendency in salaries is downward, below what is 
a living wage for any person of education and retinepjcnt, and 



58 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

below a remuneration -which will make teaching attractive 
to the better class of young people ; and that the salaries 
paid are lower than in other western cities, or in other t3'pes 
Qif city service. What ought to appeal to the best minds as 
the highest and most attractive service is rendered just the 
opposite, from a monetary point of view. 

To supply the present needs of the schools for regular 
class teachers and for special teachers, as A^^ll be pointed out 
further on in this report, would require the addition of ap- 
proximately 100 more teachers to the elementary school serv- 
ice. To pay a salary schedule such as well-trained teachers 
demand would require, including the new teachers to be em- 
ployed to meet present needs, an addition of probably 40 per 
cent to the present allowance for teachers' salaries. This is 
doubtless impossible under the present tax limits, but it is no 
less a necessity if the schools are to be put in condition to 
render the full service that they should. A continuation of 
present tendencies eannot fail to interfere seriously with the 
efficiency of the instruction in the schools. 

In presenting these criticisms of the present policy as to 
teachers, necessitated by the present financial situation, the 
survey staff do not wish to leave the impression that they 
feel that the teaching force is not rendering good service. 
On the contrary, we felt that the city was getting more for 
its money than it had a right to expect. In every school we 
found a few excellent teachers, a number of good average 
teachers, and one or two teachers who seemed to lack ex- 
perience and grasp. The last is not at all surprising, consider- 
ing the t^•pe of young people being taken for the work. That 
the teachers were rendering as good service as they were, 
considering the inexperience and lack of contact with life 
elsewhere of many of the newer ones, was in large measure 
due to the good supervision given their work by the prin- 
cipals and special supervisors. 



SCHOOL CENSUS AND ATTENDANCE. 



59 



CHAPTER V. 
SCHOOL CENSUS AND SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. 

(Cub'berley) 

The Increase in Both. The drawing which appears on 
this page shows the increases in school census, school enroll- 
ment, and average membership in the schools of Salt Lake 
City for the past quarter of a century. In a general way the 
three follow somewhat parallel lines, though the increase in 
enrollment and average membership during the past fifteen 
years has not quite kept up with the increase in the school 





















/^^ 








-^:S- 


c^-^ 


^^ 


SCHOOLCt^iSiLS . 


r- - UTuTp\H 


scnoots 




^^ 


--'-'^i^.hSii I 


MN\BERS»^**^ 






y 











30 OOO 

Children 



0\ CV C\ 5» C\ 0\ 



o\ o\ o^ o> 



FIG. 12. INCREASE IN SCHOOL CENSUS, ENROLLMENT, 
AND AVERAGE MEMBERSHIP. 



census. The increase in school census as reported by the en- 
umerators has also been less regular than has the increase 
in enrollment and average membership, as shown by the more 



60 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

jairixod lino. A natural question raised by such a eurve is as 
to ^^•lletller the different enumerations have been earefully 
made. It is liard to explain the deereases in 1906, and again 
in 1912, on any other basis than a failure to enumerate all the 
existing ehildren. .\s all apportionments of state sehool money 
are based on the sehool eensus returns (ehildren over G and 
under IS years of age reported as living within the city) and 
as the amount apportioned is a considerable sum ($13.00 per 
child in 1913-14) it doubtless would pay the board of educa- 
tion to revise the methods in use for taking the annual sehool 
census. 

A School Census Biu'eau. A sehool eensus bureau should 
be created, in eonneetion with the department of compulsory 
school attendance, and it should compile accurate records of 
tlie children living in every block or school district in the 
city. Such records might be collected by the school princi- 
pals, by the department of compulsory attendance, or by some 
other means. Each pupil-record should show the following in- 
formation. 

1. Name of child (surname tirst). 

2. Sex of child. 

3. Month, day. and year of birth, from which the num- 

ber of years old, at last birthday, is also to be set 
down. The authority upon which the age is t<\keu 
(word of parents ; birth certificate: baptismal certifi- 
cate; passport; etc."* shall also be set down. 

4. Country of birth. 

o. Name of parent (father or mother\ guardian, or 
other person standmg in parental relation. 

6. Abode, including school-attendance district, post-of- 

tice address, and street and number. 

7. Physical condition (good: deaf: dumb: blind: crip- 

pled \ 

5. ^lental condition (good; otherwise). 

9. School attending (public: private: parochiaD. 
10. Position in school (grade\ 



SCHOOL CENSUS AND ATTENDANCE. 61 

11. Reason, if not attending scliool. 

12. If employed, where and how. 

13. Vaccination certificate record. 

A duplicate card system should be employed, one card to 
be retained in the office of the department of compulsory school 
attendance, and one at the school the child attends. This 
form of school census should be always in the making, so 
as to keep it accurate and reliable. School teachers and prin- 
cipals should report all changes and additions, and the school 
principals could be employed on Saturdays or in vacation to 
check up and keep accurate the information for their school 
districts. 

All such data should be sorted and tabulated by schools, 
or attendance districts, and the attendance of each child at 
public, private, or parochial school, or non-attendance at any 
school, should be indicated on the records. The annual state 
school census, required by the laws of the state, could be 
taken each July from the card records on file in the office 
of the attendance department. By using some care to main- 
tain such records in accurate form, the whereabouts of every 
child of school age could at all times be known. Such a 
form of continuing school census has been established by a 
few of our cities, and is the only form that possesses much real 
value as a record, or for the enforcement of the compulsory- 
attendance, child-labor, or working-permit laws. 

Such a plan calls for the appointment of a man or woman 
who will give full time to keeping the records accurate, and 
some extra clerical assistance at certain times of the year. 
The school principals could be used for much of the work, as 
they constitute the most intelligent body of assistants obtain- 
able. Such a census bureau would of course cost something 
to maintain, — perhaps $5,000 a year, — but it probably would 
more than save its cost in increased earnings from the state 
grants, in addition to affording a much better basis for the 
enforcement of the state laws relating to the education and 
protection of children. 



62 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Value of such Records in Locating School Buildings. A 

tabulation of such records, from year to year by blocks and 
by districts, would also be of much value to the officers of 
the school department in determining the growth, the rate 
of growth, and the changes in character of the school pop- 
ulation in the different districts of the city. Prom such data 
the needs of the school department in buildings, rooms, equip- 
ment, and teachers could not only he somewhat accurately 
determined, but determined sufficiently long enough in ad- 
vance to enable the school department to provide proper 
school facilities. It is from some such form of record that 
a telephone company knows where to locate a branch ex- 
change, and when to replace its lines with others capable of 
caring for increased business. With such records available, 
such errors of personal judgment as 'the board of education 
made last year in deciding to locate a new building on the 
already over-crowded Hamilton School site, and later, afteir 
the type of building had been decided upon and plans had 
been drawn, reversing itself and locating the building as orig- 
inally recommended by the superintendent of schools, could 
easily be avoided. From reading the minutes of board meet- 
ings for July, August and September of last year, one would 
be led to infer that this needless mistake cost the board a 
large amount of time, and caused much bitter feeling. Under 
a good record system, such a case could easily have been 
avoided. 

Enforcement of Compulsory Attendance. The school 
law of the State of Utah requires the attendance at some 
school of practically every child in Salt Lake City, between 
the ages of 8 and 16, for at least 30 weeks each year. The 
reports of the school truant officer, as printed in the annual 
reports of the board of education, would indicate that the 
attendance of children is looked after as well as one man 
can do such work in a city of 110,000 inhabitants, and cover- 
ing fifty square miles of territory. 

Figure 13, showing the ages of all children belonging to 



SCHOOL CENSUS AND ATTENDANCE. 



63 



the schools in May, 1915, shows that attendance holds up fair- 
ly well to the end of the 15th year. Figure 14. however, 



ZOOO Pupils 



■I500 




-moo 



^^f^^ 



10 l\ IZ 13 /4 IS 10 n It IS zo yns: 



F'IG. 13. DISTKIBUTION OF PUBLIC SCHOOL PUPILS IN 
SALT LAKE, BY AGES. 



shows that attendance drops very rapidly in Salt Lake City 
after the completion of the 6th school grade, and this fact, 
together with the large number of over-age children in the 



64 



SCTTOOT. SURVEY REPORT. 



grndos, as shown by Fitj^nre 28, makes it almost certain that 
ft largo number o[' tlie older ehildren, held in school by the 
enforcement of the eonipnlsory education laws, are pupils 
Avho are "mired doAvn" in the grades and are hopelessly re- 
penting Avork Avhieh is not at all vsnited to their needs. This 
nmst be i>articnl;ivly the case with many o\! the boys. It is 
almost certain that a vocational school for such children Avould 
be of great benetit not only to them, but to the grades from 
which they would be withdrawn as well. No school system 
consisting of grade instruction alone can ever meet the educa- 
tional needs of those markedly over-age boys and girls who 
find themselves unable to make satisfactory progress in the 
work of the ordinary school course of study. The needs of 
sucli cliildrcn arc considered more at length in Chapter IX. 



41.VIO 
Pupils 



.''DOO - 



3orc 



Z600 



zooo 



I500 



lOOO 



sec 











• 

1 




^ 


' 1 f9/4 


' 


^^^-^^ 














I 1 




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^ 


1 



4000 

Pupils 



3SOO 



30OO 



1500 



lOOO 



JOO 



&ftnD£ I XL m _ u X XI 3iii "sm tt t -ct ttt 

FIG. 14. CHAXGKS IX THE KXROLL.^IENT BY GKADES 
IX TAYEXTY YEARS. 



SCHOOL CENSUS AND ATTENDANCE. 65 

Where the Schools are Increasing. Figure 14 shows the 
increase in pupils enrolled in the schools at the close of each 
ten-year period for the past three decades, and their distribu- 
tion throughout the school system by grades. This is an in- 
teresting chart. In 1894, th« great dropping out of children 
took place after the completion of the 4th school grade, the 
iuunl)er remaining to the close of the 8th or going on through 
the high school being quite small. During the ten-year per- 
iod up to 1914, the schools actually increased more in the four 
upper grades than in the four lower, a rather anomolous 
situation. During the last ten-year period, the great gain has 
been in the first six grades. 

The marked falling off in a1 tendance is now seen to take 
place at the close of both the 4ti' and the 6th school grades, 
with another heavy mortality at V^e end of the first year of 
the high school. The loss a^: the end of the 9th grade is 
almost as large as the loss at the end of the 8th. These 
curves naturally raise a question as to whether the courses 
of study and the types of education provided for the children 
l)elow 16 years of age is the best the community can provide. 
This question will be considered more in detail in' the succeed- 
ing chapters of this report. 

Pupils Completing the High-school Course. The small 
number of pupils finishing a high school course, or even qon- 
tinuing into the second year ol" the high schools, is a notice- 
able feature of the distribution shown in figure 14. In a 
community such as Salt Lake City, a community of good 
racial stocks, low illiteracy, good educational traditions, a 
state university at its doors, and much wealth, this is a rather 
surprising condition to find. One would expect, in such a 
city, to find a large rather than a small percentage of pupils 
in attendance at the high schools. But, notwithstanding the 
rather marked increase in high school enrollment during the 
last decade, the percentage in the high school grades is still 
quite low. This condition naturally raises questions as to 
the adaptability to community needs of the instruction now 



Oti 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



CITIES 

IBERKELEVCAL 
e NEWTON. MA35. 
3 3ANJ03E.CAL 
4PASADENA,CAL 
5WALTHAN\.fV\ASS 

6 SAN DIE60.0AL. 

7 5EATTLE.VyA3H. 
SSP0KANE.VVA3H 
9CAMBRIDGE.MA33 
IO0E5 MOINES, lA 
1ISACRAN\ENT0,CAL 
12.L0S ANGELES. CAL. 
ID OMAHA. NEBR 

14 DENVER, COLO 

15 TACOMA.WASti. 
laSPRINGFIELD.fAASS. 
17 PORTLAND. ORE 
ISOAKLAND.CAL. 
19.DL)LUTh.N\lfiN 

20 BUTTE. MONT 
eiOGDEN.UTAti 
22.Y0NKLRS,N,Y. 
23SALTLAKEC1TY 


5 10 16 CO Z5% 


1 . 1 , . , . j , . , , 1 . . , . 






















Ik'^.i HH^HpHHl 


■i4G ■■■■■■■■ 




■i4..s ■■■■■■I 


■i4'3 I^H^^pllB 




■t^ '^ I^IH^HH 


ll33i^M^^1 


ii3.z liiiiiiiiipiii 


■ l3.l ^l^M 


■124 ^i^^^M^ 


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■10.^ ■■■■lil 


1 '<^ ^~ ■HHp 


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^^?.2 >^%^ 


24rALLRIV[:R.NV\S3, 
25 SAN FRANCISCO 


Ft 



FTO 15. THE PERCENTAGE AVllICH THE ATTEND AXOE 

AT THE HIGH SCHOOLS KEPKESENTS OF THE 

ATTENDANCE AT ALL SCHOOLS. 



SCHOOL CENSUS AND ATTENDANCE. 67 

offered in the Salt Lake City high schools. This question we 
shall consider at length in the second part of this report. 

To compare Salt Lake 'City in this respect with other 
cities, Figure 15 has been prepared. This shows, in a series of 
percentages, the relation which the number of pupils in at- 
tendance at the high schools in the different cities bears to the 
total numher of pupils attending all schools in the city. Salt 
Lake City is here compared with twenty-four other American 
cities, including the sixteen western cities previously used. 
The data used for all cities is from the published reports of 
the United States Commissioner of Education, and covers the 
school year 1912-13, which is the last year for which reports 
are as yet available. Salt Lake City has also heen calculated 
for the year 1914-15, from figures furnished by the superin- 
tendent as to this year's attendance. It would be expected 
that the opening of the new East Side High School would 
have materially affected the attendance, but the increase is 
only from 8.2 per cent to 9.2 per cent. This raises Salt Lake 
City only from the twenty-third place among twenty-five cities 
to twenty-second place. 

This chart tends to confirm the impression, raised by a 
study of the curves of Figure 14, that the courses oif study 
offered in the Salt Lake City high schools are not as well 
adapted to the needs oif the children of the city as they 
should be. The last two years of the elementary-school course 
also probably lack in power to interest the pupils in carrying 
their studies further. These questions will be considered fur- 
ther in the second part of this report, where certain reor- 
ganizations, calculated to improve the upper-grade work and 
make the entrance to high school more attractive, are pre- 
sented. 



PART II 

The Work of the 
Schools 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 71 

CHAPTER VI. 
THE PRINTED COURSES OF STUDY. 



(Van Sickle) 

Order of Procedure. Turing now to the work of the 
schools themselves, we shall attempt to evaluate, with some 
care, the work which they attempt and carry out. First we 
shall examine the printed courses of study and outlines for 
work that are issued for the guidance of teachers in the 
schools, to see in how far these meet the best standards as 
to what should constitute school instruction. This will be 
done in the present chapter, taking first the kindergarten, 
and then the different subjects taught in the elementary 
school, and in the order in which they are presented in the 
printed courses of study. In the chapter which follows we 
shall attempt to evaluate the instruction and supervision as 
seen by the different members of the survey staff, and shall 
make recommendations for certain .desirable extensions of 
the school work. 

Opinions and Tests. Both oif these chapters will, of nec- 
essity be based largely on the personal opinion of the mem- 
bers of the survey staff, based in turn, we hope, on a knowl- 
edge of what constitutes good theory and current practice in 
the best of our American school system. Following these two 
chapters, and in a way supporting their conclusions, will come 
two other chapters, which are in no way based on personal 
opinion, but instead on careful measurements as to the results 
of the instruction and administration of the schools, using 
standard tests and carefully collected statistical data. 

This second part of the report must, by its very nature, 
be somewhat scientific and technical, as any other than a 
scientific and technical treatment of the problem would be 



72 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

of but little value, but to those charged with the admin- 
istration and instruction of the schools the results here of- 
fered should prove o'f very great use. We also venture to 
hope that this second part has been put in such form, and 
the results so illustrated by diagrams, that the laymen, as 
well, may be able to understand it and from it derive an 
accurate and intelligent idea as to the actual work which 
the schools of his city are doing. 

I. THE KINDERGARTENS. 

The Kindergarten Theory. As outlined by the supervisor 
of primary schools and kindergartens this seems to be of the 
liberal type, but the equipment for carrying out this theory 
is inadequate, in that it consists of the old-time small gift 
blocks and occupation materials. A theory in line with the 
best modern thought cannot be consistently worked out by 
means of an equipment designed for an extremely conserva- 
tive and now almost abandoned practice. 

A valuable feature of the printed directions to kinder- 
garten teachers consists of suggestive exercises for the train- 
ing of the senses of touch, sight, and hearing similar to those 
cited by Halleck in his "Education of the Central Nervous 
System. ' ' To quote from the outline in this connection : 

"The development of the senses always precedes Intellectual activ- 
ity, but we often demand the activity before we have given any train- 
ing to the senses, or at least any regulated, purposeful training. 

"Because the period of life between the age of three and the age 
of eight is one of rapid sense development, and because during this 
period the child responds readily to the sense stimuli of his environ- 
ment and but little to reason, the kindergarten should make sense 
training one of its chief lines of work. 

"Sense training exercises are exceedingly valuable not only 
because they result in trained servants but because they demand 
more or less concentration and therefore beget the habit and increase 
the power." 

'Considering some of the other aims of the kindergarten 
work, the outline continues as follows : 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 73 

"We must remember that a kindergarten is not an entity, it is a 
link in a chain, and as such we should see to it that it will fit into 
the next link. Teachers of the first grade have a right to expect 
children who have had a kindergarten training to come to them with 
greater sensory power, with some ability to receive and follow direc- 
tions, some manual power, some idea of self-control in the interest of 
the social group, a desire to achieve an independent solution of their 
little problems, and possessed of an alertness of sense perception not 
looked for in children who have not had such training." 

More kindergartens needed. The more prosperous por- 
tions of the city are well supplied with kindergartens. It 
would appear that in locating kindergartens there has been 
no comprehensive study of the needs of the various sections. 
Some of those in greatest need of them have none at all. 
Where there is great need there is naturally little realization of 
the need, and therefore no demand has made itself felt. This 
does not relieve the school department of the duty to look out 
for portions of the city in which the people do not know how 
to look out for their own interests. A kindergarten is greatly 
needed in each of the following schools : Bonneville, Irving, 
Onequa, Poplar Grove, "Washington, and Webster. 



II. THE COURSES OF STUDY FOR THE ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS. 

It may be said at the outset that with two principal excep- 
tions to be discussed later, manual training and physical train- 
ing, the courses of study as outlined for the Salt Lake City 
schools are worthy of much commendation. ' Unlike many 
similar publications, the volume does not appear to be a mere 
compilation. A definite theory of education underlies the 
development of each subject, and unusual attention has been 
paid to the relation which one subject bears to another. By 
means of the close correlation thus worked out great economy 
of time is possible, both in teaching and in learning. 



74 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

How the courses of study were made. It is noteworthy 
that in preparing the present courses of study the superin- 
tendent and the supervisors were aided by the advice of a 
committee of five teachers from each grade, and a similar com- 
mittee of principals. The writing of the courses could without 
doubt have been more quickly done in the superintendent's 
office, without time-consuming consultations with members of 
the teaching force. Thus prepared, they might have been 
quite as good, or even better, and yet have failed to serve as 
useful a purpose. They would have seemed to have been 
imposed by authority rather than adopted as a result of co- 
operative effort, whereas courses formulated in part hy the 
teaching force, as in this instance, will be understood by all 
and all, having had a certain responsibility in their prepara- 
tion and adoption, will be in sympathy with their aims and 
standards. 

The making of courses of study is best managed when the 
preparation is utilized as an opportunity, as has been done in 
this case, to increase the efficiency of the teaching force by 
securing the thoughtful participation of teachers in the work 
and responsibility involved. For these reasons the plan under 
which the Salt Lake City courses of study were formulated is 
to be commended. The committees to which reference has 
been made were appointed by the superintendent. Similar 
committees elected by the teachers themselves are now delib- 
erating, not only on further desirable revisions of the courses, 
but also, at the invitation of the superintendent, upon any other 
feature of school procedure about which they care to make 
recommendations. 

Wherever such co-operative relations exist between the 
supervising oificers and the teaching force in a school system 
one may reasonably expect the favorable results that always 
come from team work. In their visits to the schools the mem- 
bers of the survey staff have been at some pains to find out 
whether there is in fact in the Salt Lake City schools the 
mutual confidence land co-operation between teachers and 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 75 

supervisory officers which their plan would lead one to expect. 
It is our opinion that such a relation has been developed to a 
good degree, and that its effects are evident in the daily pro- 
cedure in most of the school rooms visited. 

What the courses prescribe. The courses of study pre- 
scribe minimum attainments which children must possess as a 
condition of promotion. Beyond this minimum great freedom 
is allowed. In developing any course of study for any grade 
beyond the minimum which is deemed attainable by the slowest 
pupil, the superintendent places large responsibility upon the 
principal, so that he may adapt the work to any need peculiar 
to the local community. The principal in turn gives large 
liberty to the teacher in meeting individual needs of pupils, 
and in following out lines of interest. Under such conditions 
the teacher cannot degenerate into an automaton. She re- 
quires the children to think for themselves, to use their heads. 
This emphasis upon thought rather than mere memory was 
noticeable in nearly all school rooms that were visited. There 
was evidently much to be desired on the score of broader pre- 
liminary education on the part of many teachers, yet this lack 
was evidently being met, to a considerable extent, by the stu- 
dent attitude and consequent growth in power characteristic 
of a body of teachers who are being stimulated to regard their 
work as the solution of a series of vital problems rather than 
as a routine task. 

Diversity in time allotments. As might be expected in a 
system of schools in which considerable freedom is accorded 
teachers, there is much diversity in the time allotted to the 
various subjects in different school rooms of the same grade. 
This IS clearly shown in Table No. 12. One cannot say so 
many minutes per day are devoted to spelling in the sixth 
grade of the Salt Lake City schools, so many to arithmetic, and 
so many to reading. The needs of the particular class deter- 
mine the time. No teacher can excuse poor work by saying, 
"I have used faithfully each day during the semester the time 
prescribed for the subject. It is therefore not my fault that 







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THE COURSES OF STUDY. 77 

the children have not met the minimum requirement of the 
course of study." The time was the teacher's to apportion. 
It was her responsibility to gauge the relative strength of the 
class in the various subjects, and work out a time schedule to 
fit the particular problem presented by her own pupils; not 
only to work it out, but to change it from time to time to meet 
changing needs as they develop. 

Early in each new term the teacher submits to the princi- 
pal a tentative daily program for his approval. This program, 
either as first presented or as modified, after consultation, is 
placed on the blackboard of the school room, to be followed 
till some modification seems desirable when, with the minimum 
of red tape, the desired change is approved and made. 

Table No. 12 was made up from blanks filled out by the 
teachers themselves, on the basis of time schedules actually 
posted in the school rooms at the time of the survey. The 
variation in the time devoted to given subjects by different 
teachers of the same grade, as shown under the headings 
"Maximum" and "Minimum" in the table, are so great as to 
suggest the probability that some subjects are being neglected 
by some teachers, while other subjects are overemphasized. 
While believing in the principle of freedom on the part of the 
teacher in regulating her own program, and in corresponding 
responsibility for results, the survey would suggest the desir- 
ability of a more careful examination and criticism by some 
principals of the time schedules for their classes before ap- 
proval. 

From a study of Table 12 this responsibility on the part of 
the principal would appear to have been performed in many 
instances in a somewhat perfunctory manner. In order that 
so much freedom may not be harmful instead of helpful, all 
who are charged with responsibility in such matters must live 
up to that responsibility. Where such extreme variations as 
appear in this table become common, it is not a matter for 
surprise that many superintendents feel driven to the unfor- 
tunate necessity of going to the opposite extreme and prescrib- 



78 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

ing time limits as the lesser of two evils. The recommenda- 
tion of the survey is that the freedom in this regard that now 
olDtains in Salt Lake City be not curtailed, but that principals 
and teachers, by study and consultation, arrive at a consensus 
in the matter which will result in a more uniform apportion- 
ment of time than now obtains. However, it would not be out 
of harmony with the general plan of the course of study to 
make a minimum prescription as to the time to be devoted to 
each subject, grade by grade, if sufficient time were left 
unclassified to give the teacher reasonable scope for shifting 
emphasis from one subject to another as occasion might seem 
to her to require. The policy of teacher participation, under 
which the Salt Lake City courses of study have been formulated 
and from time to time revised, is commended as likely to secure 
sympathetic and intelligent application in the school room, and 
at the same time to promote professional growth of teachers 
in service. 

Pupils who cannot accomplish the minimum. It is noted 
in the foreword that the course "represents the minimum 
attainments to be made by pupils before promotion to a higher 
class, ' ' and ' ' to secure uniform and thorough work these stan- 
dards should be carefully observed." 

One adverse comment must here be made : Although, in 
the courses as outlined, only minimum attainments are insisted 
upon, attainments easily within the reach of normal minded 
children, it must be remembered that among children of school 
age everywhere there are many for whom mastery of the ordi- 
nary courses of study is impossible. The Salt Lake City schools 
present no exception to this world-wide condition. As is 
shown in Chapter IX, there are approximately 600 children 
enrolled in the schools who are of such a low grade of men- 
tality that they cannot profit by strict adherence to even the 
minimum requirements of courses of study prepared for normal 
children. In its insistence upon "uniform and thorough" 
work, without exceptions either stated or implied, the demand 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 79 

is altogether too sweeping. It is likely to be misleading, too, 
since in the ordinary school rooms throughout the city there 
are many children of this class who for various reasons are not 
transferred to the special (Twelfth) school, where of course 
it is understood that the regular curriculum need not be fol- 
lowed. 

Furthermore, it is questionable w'hether the ordinary 
courses of study are suitable for a relatively large group of 
children found in all school systems who, while not feeble 
minded, are unable to deal effectively with printed symbols, 
and who are consequently handicapped in their progress 
through those courses of study which are best fitted for such 
children as can readily gain ideas ifrom the printed page. 

No exact statement can be made as to the number of chil- 
dren of this type. Estimates vary from 10 to 30 per cent of 
the entire enrollment. One cannot study the statistics of 
retardation in the Salt Lake City schools, as presented in Chap- 
ter IX, without coming to the conclusion that the conditions 
just set forth, and found to exist throughout the country as a 
whole, also exist here. At this stage of progress in our knowl- 
edge of the needs of children of this type, it would be too 
much to expect that courses of study should provide any com- 
plete scheme for the education of pupils who are retarded 
through inability to think in symbols; but every school system 
should recognize the presence in the schools of a considerable 
number of such children, and in general terms indicate the 
limits within which prescribed "minimum attainments" are to 
be insisted upon. Some possible and desirable substitutions 
for the present prescribed work will be offered later in this 
report. The problem demands careful study, and the fine 
attitude of principals and teachers toward attacking vital 
questions should be utilized to formulate a working plan for 
the next revision, which will be adapted to local conditions, 
and by means, of which the children who are at present misfits 
in the regular courses may find a more objective approach to 
the school arts than current practices provide. ^ 



80 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



III. THE SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN DETAIL. 

1, Morals, Manners, and Civics, 

Prominence given to this subject. Prominence is given to 
a eluipter on morals, inauuers, and civics b}^ giving it first place 
in the printed outline. It would not be easy to suggest a bet- 
ter selection of topics for emphasis than are here presented. 
There can be no question that the phase of a school's influence 
on the lives of its pupils represented by this chapter is of the 
highest importance. "We may even say that the part of the 
work of the schools covered by the topics in this chapter 
transcends in importance all the other work outlined without 
in the least overstating the case; and yet the question arises, 
would it not be better to teach morals, manners, and civics as 
the occasion calls for such instruction through the work out- 
lined as Keading, Literature, History, Civics, and Sociology? 

The question here raised is not upon the importance of 
this phase of instruction, but upon the most effective way of 
giving it. Teachers are likely to get the impression, from the 
apparent segregation of this part of the course from the por- 
tions of which it is naturally a part, that it is a subject by 
itself and adequately dealt with only when given a separate 
place on the daily program. It is readily admitted that this 
view has the support of many whose opinions are entitled to 
respect. 

Both methods of teaching of morals, the direct method and 
the incidental method, are enjoined in the outline. If a sep- 
arate period is to be set apart for this work, the one suggested 
in the course of study, the period devoted to the opening exer- 
cises of the morning, is more appropriate than any other period 
of the day. 

2. The Langiiag-e, or English Group. 
Emphasis on English work. The following closely-related 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 81 

subjects are included: Beading and literature, phonics, lan- 
guage and grammar, spelling and writing. Sixty-four pages 
of the course of study are devoted directly to these various 
phases of English work, and, in addition, suggestions for util- 
izing the abundant opportunities for English teaching afforded 
by other studies are of frequent occurrence. Every^vhere in 
the course of study clear and forceful expression is empha- 
sized. This is particularly true in history and geography. On 
page 153 'we find the following statement : 

"Geography offers excellent opportunities for training in oral and 
written language. Proper training in thought processes should at the 
same time develop power of oral and written expression. Give careful 
attention to the mode of expression in both oral and written work, but 
do not restrict freedom of expression by ill-timed criticism. When one 
pupil is reciting, require respectful attention from all others." 

On p. 114, "Much of the foregoing subject matter (his- 
tory) may be considered in language"; and, on p. 121, "An 
excellent opportunity is presented in the study of history to 
create an appreciation of and a love for many beautiful and 
inspiring literary productions, poems, and songs." Suitable 
selections are suggested. A careful examination of the chap- 
ters dealing with different phases of English work leads to the 
conclusion that the course has been worked out with care and 
intelligence, and in its content is in general accord with the 
theory and practice in teaching English which prevails in the 
best school systems of the country. 

Reading and Literature. The strong points in the treat- 
ment of this phase of the work seem to be : 

1. The effectiveness of the method used in teaching be- 
ginners to read. During the first two or three years of a 
child's school life proficiency in reading is the main requisite 
for promotion from grade to grade, and a pupil's progress 
throughout the school course is influenced largely by his power 
to read and interpret the books to which he has access. From 
the first attention is centered upon the meaning of what is read. 



82 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

2. Tho ban is placed upon uaggiiig about minor inaccu- 
racies. ''Placing undue stress upon errors, grammatical con- 
struction and intliH'tions. per se, -will do little to secure cogent 
thinking and lluont and flexible expression." (p. 4:1.) 

o. "The stir of tho inner man. not the criticisms of outer 
manifestations, makes for improvement, development, growth." 
(p. 43.) 

4. Emphasis upon the importance of strong selections, 
possessing unity of effect. 

5. The insistence upon the teacher's seeing the end of 
each reading lesson, upon purpose, plan, and a well-thought- 
out presentation. 

6. Dramatization as an adjunct to good reading. 

7. The eare taken -to insure home reading. 

Several suitable books have been suggested in connection 
with the prescribed reading, in classes above the third grade, 
and pupils are shown how they can obt^iin these books. An 
incidental aim is to toaoh pupils the use of a library and to 
bring them frequently into its environment. The results are 
held to be. to an extent at least, a measure of the teacher's 
power to inspire her pupils with a genuine lore of reading. 

Good oral reading. A departure from the usual procedure 
in oral reading, and one likely to forward this aim, was noted 
with approval in two class rooms. Ordinarily the child who 
is reading has no audience in any true sense. All members of 
the class have the same book and follow more or less atten- 
tively the reader's performance. He has no very strong motive 
for clear enunciation or the cultivation of a tone that will carry 
to distant parts of the room. No one needs to depend upon 
his performance in order to undei*stand the paragraph or the 
selection which he reads. In these two instances the reading 
was from an interesting library book, — not the regular school 
reader. Only one copy was available, but the children who 
in succession read from this book had a real audience, and they 
held their audience, too. There was the keenest interest in the 
storv. and tho attention was absolute. 



THE COURSES OP STUDY. 83 

If a reader failed momentarily to make himself under- 
stood, mass sentiment made itself felt. The effort of the 
reader was directed toward making the class understand the 
story. The story was one that the class wished to understand,, 
consequently the exercise claimed and secured the undivided 
attention of all. 

The practice of oral reading under conditions which hold 
the reader responsible for making the thought of the author 
understood by a real audience ought to be far more common 
in schools than it now is. 

Where improvements might be made. Two reservations 
must here he made with regard to directions otherwise ex- 
cellent. 

1. In the outline for first grade, teachers are warned not 
to allow children to read orally till they can read smoothly. 

This implies that children just beginning to read are re- 
quired to commit to memory, for the moment, every sentence 
that they read orally. They then look up from the book and 
"deliver" each sentence to the class. 

It is evident that only very brief sentences can be so com- 
mitted and delivered, and that childreii who adhere to this 
practice are in danger of being held to the reading of primer 
literature long after they have sufficient power to read boolcs 
of real merit, but containing sentences too long to be ren- 
dered glibly and without any stumbling. In tlie beginning,, 
if the child himself can get the thought from the printed page^ 
he is doing the essential thing. As early as possible, however, 
he should be taught to read by phrases rather than word by 
woird, in order to facilitate his interpretation of an author's 
thought. 

It is not so much a question of how fluently pupils go 
through a certain class of reading matter, as a question of the 
sort of reading habits that are being formed. 

2. The course is entirely lacking in directions for silent 
reading. One great purpose in teaching reading, and one 



81 SCMIOOI. SrUVKY KKTOKT 

wliifh shiMiKl roi'iMNt' S()mo ;illoiiIion o\ imi from tlu> tirsi, is its 
vnhu* for \\\e vcudcv's own biMiolil. In ilu> I'ourso of Iho sur\oy 
uiiu'h o\'i\\ Vi'i\d\niX \v;is hoafd. aiul. on tlio \vhoU\ it was <;oi\l 
rojulinij"; lull (ltMinilt> jM\'U'li^'i> in siliMii roadinii' for tho {lioiii^iit 
ivf (lio soKv'tion was n^^viM- sihmi in proiiross. Towoi* in this 
dii'iH'tivMi is inipliod in tho jn'v>\ ision for homo iw-uiinii'. Inir 
thiM'o shouKl ho ilotii\ito sohool praotioi^ in onlor to mako snro 
of adtMjiiato rosults. Tho sohiH>l rooms o\' \\\c oity aro \\iil 
sm>plioii with roadinsi- maloriah Tins is osiHH'ially notiooahlo 
in tlio pri»na»\v i^-railos, wlioro ovon in tlio tirst li'rado ohiUlron 
rt\avl from ton to iwolvo or niiM-o primers and tirst roadors. In 
(ho intonuodiato jirades sonio of tho work in history is dono in 
tho roadinii" poriod. This is tnio akso »>f hyijfiono. In both 
oasos tlio to\t books iisod, havinir boon writton witli tnoro 
rojytu'd to litoravy form tl\an somo books of thoir oknss, UmuI 
thonisolvos vory ayoH to this tinio-saviivjr plan. 

Phonics. Tho ontlino in Phonies providos for tho nooos- 
sary funonnt of work it\ oar training? and jyivos a good working 
list of phonogratns. sntlixos. and protixos. 

Tho introihu'tion of diaoritioal niarkinirs is vory wisoly 
pv^stponod nntil tho latter Italf of the third year in sohool. 
Tho ontlino niakos no detinite pixmsiou for instruetion in the 
use of the diotionary, but the phouetie study pivparos pupils 
to interpret dietionnry markings and to distiitgnish tho root 
foruis from whioh worvls aiv evolved. 

The eou»*se is progressive and praotioal. 

Lai\g-uage tvnd gi*ainmar. The streugth of tho work in the 
primary grades seems to be found in: 

1. Making grammar work dramatie and in oontiuing the 
exeivises to tnniblesome verbs, as, '' action and object exercises 
involving the verbs, pnuiouus, and adjectives used iu class B 
of t\»*st grade; also set : sit: sat: lie: lain: lay: laid." i^p. 72. "> 

2. Stimulating the inu^ginatiou of the v^wpils by the \ise 
of pictwivs, ''Pictuivs aiv always available, and, if gv^od, never 
fail to stimulate the interest of children. * * Piotuivs fur- 



TJIIO (!()IH{SIOS OK STUDY. 85 

uisli iiM cxccllciit, l);isis for iiiiii^'iiiiit i\'(' slor'ics, wliidi iiuiy bo 
fi'ivcti or'iilly or in written Focni." (p. (i7.; In cifcuhir Xo. 14, 
the priiiiiiry supervisor gives a valuable; discussion ol' stories 
from pi(ttures. She begins tin; discussion with this nnicn 
needed caution : 

'"JMie pii'lni'e story b;is too oj'ten inejint to both tcjidier 
and pupil a descr-ipt ion of tlic [)ic1ure, wlieti it slionid mean 
th(! stor'y wliicli IIk; ])ictur(; tcills." 

3. (iliving iiiucli time to or-al expression before beginning 
AVT'itlen work'. 

"The sUmulation of the desire to use good language, and much 
practice in correct oral expression in the school, are imperative to 
counteract the tendency to use incorrect forms on the play-ground.' 
(p. 68.) "No written work to be required in this class (Second A), 
but much drill in the retelling of short stories limited to one or two 
characters, and a single action, previously told by the teacher." 
(p. 72.) 

4. Making every lesson a language lesson. "All the lan- 
guage work of this class (F'irst A) should ])e oral work', and 
every recitation should ])e in a greater or less di^grec;, a lan- 
guage lesson." (p. 69.) 

5. Cominilting to memory many fine models of literature. 

"Selections of poetry should be committed to memory to be re- 
cited, to be sung, to be made the subject of conversation. This exer- 
cise may be conducted on a generous scale." (p. 67.) 

6. The frequent use of the dramatic methotl in or'al coni- 
position. 

"Dramatization of simple stories to give freedom in oral expres- 
sion and make the thought of the story real." (p. 68.) "The stories 
and poems of this grade (First A) are to be told and recited by the 
teacher, and should not be read to the children." (p. 69.) 

Spirit of the upper-grade work. The s|)iiit of the course 
in Jjanguage and Grammar outlined Uw the grammar grades 



86 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

is illustrated by the following paragraphs under "Suggestions 
for Grrammar Grades." 

"The first requirement of the school is to cause the child to be at 
home in his school world; to express his thoughts here as freely and 
frankly as he does elsewhere; to be as spontaneous in his expression 
in school as he is out of it. This will scarcely come to pass if his 
mind is centered too much on the form, if he is too conscious of the 
possibility of error. 

^'The function of all language and grammar work is to cause the 
learner to come into full possession of himself; to be sensitive and 
responsive to the influence of thought; to be able to express himself 
fluently, elegantly, thoughtfully; to know the fitting word or phrase 
and to know why it is the most fitting term to use. To know the 
parts of speech, the rules and definitions of technical English, and 
the analysis of each and every sentence, only is really worth while 
when this knowledge can be transformed into working capital which 
can be invested properly and profitably in all the occasions of the 
life of thought." 

Some of the admirable qualities in language work for 
grammar grades are : 

1. Composition laws and grammar rules are considered of 
value only so far as they aid the pupil to speak and write with 
clearness, force and ease. 

2. The insistence upon the study of model selections in 
teaching composition and appreciating the ideal in literature. 

3. The idea that language study is a part of every lesson. 
"Language teaching is not to be confined to the language lesson 

alone. Every lesson is to a degree a language lesson. It is of little 
avail to lay stress on rules of language during the regular lesson, and 
then for all the rest of the day permit children to be careless in their 
talk and written work." (p. 84.) 

4. The equal emphasis upon oral and written expression. 

5. The emphasis upon content as well as form. 

"Subjects for conversation and for composition are always to be 
adapted to the age, knowledge, and interests of the children. Some- 
thing to say and a desire to say it are both e'ssential prerequisites to 
good language." (p. 86.) 



THE COURSES t5F STUDY. 87 

6. Constant attention to enlarging the students' vocab- 
ularies. 

"In all language work the child must not only be taught to master 
his vocabulary, but he mtist be taught to acquire a vocabulary worthy 
of mastery. If the child is to acquire an adequate and worthy vocab- 
ulary, the teacher must purposefully guide him in the acquisition and 
use of that vocabulary." (p. 85.) 



3. SpeUing 

Directions for the work in spelling. The suggestions and 
directions for teaching spelling given in the course of study 
are excellent. A spelling book is used, beginning with the 
third grade. Work in phonics which, as a distinct course, 
terminates with the third grade, is not to be neglected. A 
review of the phonograms previously taught is called for in the 
fourth grade course in spelling. In the fourth and every suc- 
ceeding grade to the eighth the correlation idea is emphasized 
in the following direction : 

"Many words are to be learned as they are needed in the study of 
different subjects, or as the child's written expression demands. 
Spelling drill should be a lively exercise." 

This excellent suggestion also appears : 

"Prevention is better than cure in spelling, and the skilled teacher 
will aim to avoid all errors by making necessary suggestions before 
the lesson is studied, not after. There will be some errors even with 
this careful assignment, but the number will be small and may receive 
individual attention." 

And again : Anticipate errors in spelling and try to safe- 
guard the pupils against making them. It is easier to do than 
to undo and do. Also : Oral spelling is advocated "for guar- 
anteeing the correct sound interpretation, but — "The written 
form is the final form and the one most used in normal life 
after school ; cjDnsequently it should be the real test of a pupil's 
capability." 



88 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

The use of the dictionary is enjoined and some of the pos- 
sible causes of poor spelling are pointed out. 

Time given to the spelling. Although the time devoted to 
spelling is not prescribed in the course of study, it is evidently 
regarded by the teachers as a highly important subject. In 
many of the grammar grades fully half an hour per day, or 
one-tenth of the entire school time, is devoted to study and 
recitation in this subject, and even a longer expenditure of 
time is not uncommon. Keen interest is stimulated by a lively 
competition between schools, and by uniform competitive tests 
formulated in the office of the superintendent. As measured 
by the survey by means of the Ayres standard tests, as Avill 
be described in some detail in Chapter VIII, the results of this 
rather extreme attention to spelling show in a very high 
score ; but it is a question whether the children of Salt Lake 
City are not sacriiicing something in other lines by devoting 
so large a proportion of the total time available to spelling. 

The first investigator of note. Dr. J. M. Eice. concluded 
that more than fifteen minutes a day devoted to spelling was 
time absolutely wasted. According to this view five per cent 
of the total time would be ample, yet, estimated on the basis 
of the median of the table. Salt Lake City children spend eight 
and three-tenths per cent of the total time upon this subject. 
During the year 1909 the elementary schools of Boston, New 
York, Cliicago, Eochester. Cincinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis, 
Milwaukee, Kansas City, San Francisco and Cleveland devoted 
an average of only five and seven-tenths per cent of their time 
to spelling (estimated from Table No. 13\ a proportion not 
greatly in excess of Dr. Eice's suggested maximum. Accord- 
ing to average standards the children in the Salt Lake City 
schools are good spellers, '\^"e would not say they spell too 
well, but we believe as good results could be secured with less 
expenditure of time. 

Some admirable characteristics of the course of study in 
spelling are : 

1. The insistence in all spelling work upon anticipating 
errors. 



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W SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

2. Emphasis upon the volation of pronnneintion to spell- 
ing. 

3. The constant injnnotion to relate spelling to eoniposi- 
tion activities. "The real test of good spelling is found in 
the written composition.'' 

4. I'huphasis npon training eliildren to use the dictionary. 
r>. Insistence upon selecting words froni geography, his- 
tory, etc. 

(>. ]\Tnch drill npon lists of words commonly misspelled. 

4. Writing-. 

The method used. In the tirst half of the first grade the 
course ol" study calls for free Avork with chalk on the black- 
board, to train the children to the eonti'ol of their larger arm 
muscles. In the second half unruled paper is used in addition 
to the blackboard. Large writing with full arm movement is 
eu.ioined, — no guide lines until the second-B grade is reached. 
The course allows comparatively little writing with pencil, but 
much upon the blackboard. After this more writing may be 
required of pupils, but care is to be exercised lest fatigue 
engender carelessness of ett'ort. Correct movement, proper 
position, and reasonable speed are to be insisted upon. The 
letter forms are those now generally used in schools, a medium 
slant. 

The survey staff is of the opinion that the writing of the 
children in the Salt Lake City schools compares favorably with 
that found in other cities, and the tests described in Chapter 
Till show that it is considerably above the average. 

5. Histoiy, Civics, and Sociology. 

The g-eneral plan. The course of study in history pro- 
vides for the teaching of United States history in the fifth. 
sdxth. and eighth grades. In the eighth grade, B class, a 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 91 

general review of United States history is called for, following 
a well-prepared outline. Besides the regular text-book with 
which each pupil is supplied, several reiference books of wider 
scope are accessible to the pupils of each eighth-grade room, 
and several desk books of excellent quality are provided for 
the teachers. 

In the seventh grade United States history is incidental 
to the work in geography. North America is the topic, and 
it is enjoined that historical information pertaining to the 
division being studied shall receive special consideration. 
United States history through biography has a place in every 
grade below the fifth, through such study of one or more of our 
great historical personalities as is suited to the age of the chil- 
dren. It is included in these grades chiefly on account of its 
ethical value. The ethical aim, in fact, dominates the course in 
history as a whole. The following statement found in the 
course of study will illustrate this: 

"No other subject so touches both the head and heart of man- 
kind. The ethical impulse should be the basis of all instruction in 
all grades. It is the goodness of mankind that has evolved the good 
of civilization, and the child should be taught to appreciate the 
nobility of those whose acts constitute the history of the race and 
have determined the progress of ideas." (p. 108.) 

Attention to local history. Much attention is given in 
each grade to local history and institutions. In the fifth grade, 
A class, the history of Utah receives especial emphasis. An 
excellent outline is furnished. In the fifth grade, B class, and 
in the sixth grade, emphasis is placed upon the functions of 
the various departments of the city government. Too much 
praise cannot be given to the treatment suggested for such 
topics as the police department, the fire department, the health 
department, the garbarge system, irrigation, public parks, the 
city's water system and the general plan of city government. 

An especially noteworthy feature of the work in Civics is 
the way in which each city department head has been led to 



92 SOIUHM. SlUVKY KKTOKT. 

v'o-oporato with iho schools by t'unusluuir an outliuo or descrip- 
tion o\' tho t'mu'tions of his dopartniont. and tho way it tits into 
tho lionoral si'liouio ot' city ii-ovornuiont. At tho invitation of 
tho 4i-raiuniar-ii'rado snporvisor tlio dopartniont hoads meet the 
toaehers, tVoiu time to tinio. and oxphiin in detail the scope of 
the work wliich tliey have [u-evionsly ont lined in somewhat 
brief form. The survey statV is of the opinion that like enter- 
prise on tl\e part of supervisory otiicers. resnltiui;: in hearty 
oo-operation on the part of city department heads in dealiuar 
with commnnity civics, is far from common, and they com- 
nuMid it witliout reservation. 

Excellent features of the oom-se. .Vmong the excellent 
features of the course under discussion we note: 

\,P The emphasis placed upon nuiking history (^a"* vivid, 
vb"* a source for ereatinir ideals, v*^'^ correlation in the method 
of presentation with the composition approach to a subject 
», pa ires ik^ and oJ\ with 109 \ 

(,2^ The emphasis upon purposeful work. The purpose 
in the early work is apparently not to teach facts, but to instill 
ideals by making historic pei'soualities and national and local 
scenes live airaiu in the imaginations of the children. 

1^3'» That directions are given to consider much of the 
subject matter as suited to the language work. 

(,4^ The deliniteness with which the cotirse in history is 
presented to the teachers. 

^,5^ Investigations by classes are recommended. 

VC"* The course for upper grammar grades should stim- 
ulate a sei\se of gratitude for. and loyalty to the city govern- 
ment, 

(.T'^ The use of literary selections to supplement history 
talks is suggested, and a suitable list is given. 

6. Nature Study. 

The printed outline. Although nature study is outlined as 
a separate subject, the fact that §^H>g^aphy. historj-, and nature^ 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 93 

woi"k in the elementary scJiool sliould be fonsidct-ed ns ;i iiiiil is 
not lost sight of. We find this |)aragrapli : 

"Nature study and hi.story, industrially and socially considered, 
can not be separated from geography in the primary grades. Many ot 
the basic geographical concepts depend upon certain physical laws 
which must be understood to gain the concept, and a mental picture 
of some of the great migrations of the race, of the adjustments and 
readjustments of a people to a changing and developing environment 
on the great march of progress, are n<>cessary to give meaning and 
value to a study of the earth as the home of man." (p. 128.) 

The desired correlation is left for the tea(;her to work out. 
The outline might to advantage do more in this direction. The 
correlation of nature study with language is iiinted tit in the 
language course (p. 78), but not emphasized. In Ihc case of 
other subjects the correlation idea is usually kept in the fore- 
ground. 

The human aspect of the course is made prominiMit. 

"Children are not interested in the contour or relief of a body of 
land. They care nothing for land forms or water divisions, but they 
are intensely interested in children of other lands. How these chil- 
dren look, what they do, how they live, are subjects of unfailing 
interest and wonder, and it is through these subjects that we must 
reach land and water divisions and strictly geographical concepts." 
(p. 128-9.) 

The work in each grade is well within the grasp of the 
average city child with limited opportunity for observation. 
It is very evidentlj^ a minor course in the primary-school cur- 
riculum. The natural working from the home out into the 
nation is a commendable feature of the course fo7- i)rimary 
grades. 

The woi-k outlined for the grammar grades is largely geo- 
g)raphical, though some definite work in physics is included. 
It is suggested that in the last two grammar grades at least one 
regular period per week be devoted to this subject. 

Diversity 'in kind and amount of work done. There is 



94 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

considerable diversity in the interpretation of the course in 
different schools, and by teachers of the same grade. This, 
however, is seen to be desirable when the purpose of the course 
is taken into account. The training in observation and reason- 
ing from cause to effect is considered, as it should be, of more 
importance than the acquisition of set facts. The teacher can 
best develop these powers iu children by giving most prom- 
inence to those topics which most appeal to her own interest, 
and which therefore she can cause to be of interest to her 
class. >^ature study is the one subject in the course in which 
wide latitude nuiy be accorded to the individual teacher with- 
out defeating the purposes which the course is intended to 
serve. Tliis would seem to be the theory also as to dift'erent 
schools. 

For instance, in one s^-hool, the "Webster, bird study seemed 
at the time of the survey to be receiving much more attention 
than Avas in evidence at any other school visited by the survey. 
In each of the IS rooms of the school a diff'erent bird had 
been chosen from a list of fifty, common to the locality. After 
reasonable time for study of the bird of her choice, each 
teacher made an outline which she used with her own class, 
and which she then explained to the other seventeen teachers 
of the school, the principal having meanwhile caused copies 
to be made for their use. Each teacher devoted the nature 
study i")eriods of six weeks to the bird of her choice, and later 
two periods to each of the other seventeen birds, having as 
an aid in this task the outlines prepared by her colleagues. 
Some encroachment on the time usually devoted to drawing 
was permitted. 

The bird chosen for intensive study by a class was studied 
first from life, then more closely from a stuffed specimen. In 
the course of this study it was drawn by the children in plain 
crayon, then its habitat was drawn, then the bird in its habitat; 
then the process was repeated by the children in the same 
order, using appropriate colors. Finally the bird was modeled 
in clay and cast in plaster. All drawing was on large gray 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 



95 



paper, mounted on the blackboard. Surprisingly good results 
were 'shown, and astonishingly free and rapid work. The 
children will never forget the characteristics of birds thus 
studied. A fitting climax was afforded for this piece of co- 
operative work by the grammar grade supervisor, who saw to 
it that mimeograph sets of the outlines prepared by the teach- 
ers of the "Webster school were furnished to all other schools 
of the city. This particular instance of sharing the benefits 
of the enterprise of one school with the city as a whole is only 
a single sample of a highly commendable custom in vogue in 
the Salt Lake City schools. 

School and home gardening. The course of study lays 
stress upon the school garden and the home garden as ad- 
juncts in nature study. In this particular, as well as in its 
aim to cultivate habits of observation and incidentally to im- 
part a body o'f useful information, the course suggested for 
'Salt Lake City is in keeping with the courses suggested for 
other cities. The members of the survey did not see evidences 
that practice was generally up to the outlines provided. The 
school board has recently made provision for exceptionally 
good work in this subject in some of the outlying sections, by 
purchasing ample tracts of land in connection with a few of 
its newer buildings, but in connection with the older schools 
little or nothing is done. 

The Whittier school furnishes the best example of the 
use which may be made of the land for educational purposes. 
Of its nine-acre tract, two and one-half acres are devoted to 
the school garden. Plans for group gardens and individual 
gardens are worked out in the school as a part of the regular 
course in nature study. Garden work is done outside of 
school hours, and during the vacation period. The part of 
the product belonging to individuals is taken to the homes 
to supply family needs. The portion belonging to the school, 
after being displayed by sample at the State Fair and in 
bulk at the school, is sold to school patrons at regular mar- 



51(5 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

kot priees. Last year the money -was used to buy imported 
tUnver bulbs. These were planted in October by all teachers 
and pupils, in eonformity with a color scheme in the evolution 
ot which all had had a part. The aim was to secure individual 
interest in a community problem. At one time early last 
sprinii' 1200 to ir>00 flowers were in bloom. 

The school site purchased by the Board of Education in- 
cluded part of an old fruit orchard. The trees were pruned 
by school boys with tools from the manual training' shop, the 
work being- done under the direction of the principal of tlic 
school and the superintendent of parks. As a result of this 
pruning- tiie trees were loaded with fruit the next season. The 
fruit was green when school opened in September, but was 
allowed to remain on the trees untouched tor four weeks, until 
it was tlioroug'hly ripe. It was then picked by committees of 
pupils and taken to the domestic science room, where a part of 
it Avas canned by the girls as a lesson in the regular course m 
cooking. The portion that was not used in making jam, jelly, 
plum butter, etc., was distributed among the pupils in the 
various class rooms. The canned fruit was displayed at the 
State Fair. 

This eminently practical application of nature study, made 
under the direction of the pi'incipal of the AVhittier school, 
is not surpassed by any similar enterprise in a public school 
system elscAvhere with which the members of the survey are 
acquainted. Ir represents a tendency which is beginning to 
make itself felt in the "Back to the Laud" movement in many 
of our cities, and it is worthy of all the encouragement which 
scliool officials can give it. This case of individual work ought 
to become common in the city. The educational value of such 
work is very large. 

7. Arithmetic. 

Nature of the printed course. Tlie courses of study in 
arithmetic throuiihout the couutrv are now so nearly alike in 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 97 

requirements that the chief difference between any two courses 
is in the form of statement and the kinds of exercises pre- 
scribed. Grade limits are practically the same. In Salt Lake 
City, children in the first grade count within the limit of 100, 
add within the limit of ten and they learn how many 2's in 4, 
3's in 6, etc. There is no haste. Number facts are to be dis- 
covered, and not told or explained. The discoveries are to be 
made through the exercise of motor activity. Attention is 
called to the fact that mental growth is even more a question 
of time than physical growth. Therefore teachers are advised 
to see that conditions are such that the child if mentally ready 
will reach the number fact or relation desired. If he cannot 
reach that fact or relation without help he is not ready for 
that step, and the teacher is to wait patiently for growth in 
mental power. This is sound doctrine and it represents the 
practice now general in progressive school systems. 

Num'ber facts and relations are to be developed ob- 
jectively, with no written work in first grade, and only a mod- 
erate amount in the second grade. The multiplication tables 
are begun in the third grade, but their completion is not called 
for till the ifourth grade is reached. In the fifth grade the 
emphasis is upon fractions, though some simple oral fractional 
work has occurred earlier. In the sixth grade decimal frac- 
tions are to be carefully and thoroughly taught. Percentage 
furnishes the chief portion of the seventh grade work, and in 
the eighth grade special applications of percentage are con- 
sidered and the earlier work of the course is reviewed. This 
is essentially the work today in all good courses of study. 
Some changes in upper grade work for the seventh and par- 
ticularly the eighth will be discussed further on,, in connection 
with the Junior High School. 

The teaching observed. The methods of teaching this 
subject observed in the school rooms visited were substantially 
in accord with the sound pedagogic directions of the course of 
study. The time devoted to the vsubject shows the same wide 
variation that has been pointed out in connection with spelling. 



98 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

The average time given to arithmetic in the eleven cities given 
in Table No. 13 is 15.2 per cent of the total time. Tlie median 
time devoted to the subject in Salt Lake City is 16.6 per cent 
of the total time. Both the time given to the subject and the 
results shown by the standard tests, described at length in 
Chapter IX, make it clear that arithmetic is not neglected in 
Salt Lake City. A recent circular here reproduced will serve 
to show the intelligent care with which the brief directions of 
the course of study are supplemented, from time to time and 
as occasion arises : 

January 27, 1914. 
To Principals and Teachers: 

Arithmetic. 

The Course is to be considered as mandatory in all essential par- 
ticulars, and the subject-matter given in the text book is all to be 
taught. It is, however, necessary to consider some principles and 
processes as relatively more important than others. In these, pupils 
will be expected to reach a high degree of efficiency consistent with 
age and normal possibilities. 

In the following graphic representation an attempt is made to 
show at a glance which of certain essentials should be emphasized 
or reviewed. It will be observed that the fundamental processes are 
to be thoroughly taught in the fourth grade, however, that they are 
to be reviewed and strengthened in each succeeding grade. The sub- 
ject of fractions is to be thoroughly considered in the fifth grade, but 
must be reviewed and strengthened in each grade above the fifth 
grade, etc. Thus each grade above the grade in which any important 
principle has been considered will be expected to increase the effi- 
ciency of pupils in that subject in so far as reviews and limited teach- 
ing can make for efficiency. 

In the reviews care must be exercised to add new power and 
knowledge as well as to make present possessions clear and ready. 
Too frequently reviews cover the old ground in the old way with little 
or no profit. 



Grade 4 


Grade 5 


Grade 6 


Grade 7 


Grade 8 




a 


a 


a 


a 


a 


Fundamental Processes. 




b 


b 


b 


b 


Fractions 
Denominate Numbers 






c 


c 


c 


and Measurements 








d 


d 

e 


Percentage and Interest 
Business Application 



G. N. CHILD, 
Supervisor of Grammar Grades. 



THE COURSES OP STUDY. 99 

8 Geography. 

The course good. This course of study provides for the 
study of geography from the third to the seventh grades inclu- 
sive. When the Salt Lake City course of study in Geography 
is compared with the courses for our better city school systems, 
no significant differences appear. The general movement in 
all the courses is now from the home and its environment to 
the earth as a whole, and from this to North America and a 
detailed study of the United States. 

The Salt Lake City course emphasizes the study of home 
or local geography in an especially effective way. Fevv^ places 
afford better opportunities for teaching land and water forms 
by direct personal observation than does the Salt Lake Valley. 
The use of the sand table is advised and practiced in the third 
grade, so that as soon as the impression is gained through 
observation its expression may follow. Pictures and objects 
are collected by teachers and pupils and freely used. 

The outlines and the suggestions for teaching contained 
in them are admirable. They ara definite, without being too 
exhaustive, and the plan of work as outlined is especially 
adapted to the region about Salt Lake 'City. A brief survey of 
the modes of life of primitive man leads up to a study of farm- 
ing and cattle raising under modern conditions in the neigh- 
borhood of the Great Salt Lake. The outline includes an ex- 
perimental study of the geographical features of the city and 
surroundings, and of the formation of soil; a 'brief sarvey of 
dry farming in Utah; the sugar-beet industry; sheep and cat- 
tle raising, and the leading manufactures. 

It is a question whether the study of the sugar-beet indus- 
try should be carried so far in this grade, since eight-year-old 
children are scarcely capable of contrasting the political 
effects of the sugar-cane industry with the political effects of 
the sugar-beet industry. Studies of social and political causes 
and effects may well be postponed until pupils are sufficiently 
matured to 'form intelligent conclusions. Initial study of the 



100 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

world's commerce and of the reasons for the exchange of goods 
between states and countries is, however, quite within the 
grasp of third grade pupils, and the teachers who present the 
subject as outlined are laying a broad foundation for future 
study of commercial exchange. On the whole, these outlines 
for third grade geography are models of their kind. 

The instruction observed. The home city and the home 
state having been studied intensively, the child is prepared to 
comprehend what his teacher and his books have to say about 
other political divisions and cities. This is the method advo- 
cated in the course. It is the method of comparison. Map 
drawing is practiced wholly from the point of view of gaining 
power to interpret maps. It is justly regarded as of indis- 
pensable importance. Rapidly drawn relief and outline maps, 
with just the amount of detail called for in the topic under 
consideration, are therefore emphasized in all grades. 

A modern course in geography makes large demands upon 
the scholarship and resources of teachers. In a recent report 
of the Massachusetts Board of Education we find a recogni- 
tion of immensely increased scope of the geography of today 
as compared with that of half a century ago : 

"It is hard to realize the immense distance that separates the 
scanty sailor geography of half a century ago from the complicated 
network of relations of physical, social, and political facts, gathered 
in 50 years of untiring research, which now, under the name of 
geography, form a part of the daily food of all children in the ele- 
mentary schools." 

In view of this situation it is essential that schools be 
liberally supplied with suitable books, so that the children can 
obtain for themselves the greater part of the information for 
which the course of study calls. The school board of Salt 
Lake City has met this requirement with liberality. The chil- 
dren are well supplied with supplementary geographical read- 
ers, as well as with modern basal text-books in the subject. 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 101 

9. Music. 

The course oi' study in music appears to be very carefully 
arranged as to grading-, with especial and detailed directions 
to the teachers in the lower grades. These indicate an appre- 
ciation of the ideals of primary-grade methods in music as 
advocated by the leaders in the teaching of the subject. 

Instruction observed. It M^as evident to members of the 
survey, as they observed the manner in which exercises in 
music were conducted, that much well directed effort has been 
devoted to this study through a series of years. When the 
junior high school plan becomes fully established, so that all 
instruction in the seventh and eighth grades may be on the 
departmental plan, the music work of these grades will un- 
doubtedly show better results than are now generally obtain- 
able, for then it will be possible to have the instruction given 
by teachers who have shown special aptitude for the work. 
At present, as might be expected, there is considerable varia- 
tion in the enthusiasm for music manifested in different 
schools, according as they are less or more fortunate in having 
upper-grade teachers who have talent in this direction. 

In the Lafayette School an extremely effective plan for 
furnishing motive for good music work is carried out in the 
morning exercises. The children of each of the twenty-two 
classes sing in turn for the entire school. As the school has 
no auditorium, the children who are to sing assemble in the 
corridor of each floor on successive mornings. All doors are 
open and the children in the rooms sit at attention. Thus they 
learn to be appreciative listeners. Several of the teachers 
contribute to the success of the plan by singing in their turn 
for the entertainment of the pupils. 

10. Art and Construction. 

Need for more supervision. At the time of the survey the 
art work in the grammar grades was suffering from lack of 



102 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

supervision, and apparenth" but little was being done. Those 
of the grade teachers who had some special talent for the work 
Avere able unaided to keep up their interest and secure results, 
but the majority of the teachers were in need of the constant 
inspiration, help, and suggestion which a competent supervisor 
could give. The course of study appears, in the main, to be 
in line with the best thought on the subject, but to a teacher 
who has not had excellent art training it would seem too 
indefinite to serve as a sufficient guide. There are few grade 
teachers who can do creditable work in this department with- 
out the advantage of frequent supervision, no matter how 
minutely the course is laid out for them. 

It is hard to understand how the small financial saving 
brought about by relegating the supervisor of art work to a 
part-time assignment in one of the high schools can be con- 
sidered, by any one conversant with the principles of good 
school management, as a justifiable piece of economy. As mat- 
ters now stand, the art and construction work is planned and 
supervised in the primary grades, while between these grades 
and the high school there is a vride gap where the work ap- 
pears to be deteriorating by reason of lack of expert guidance. 
Other cities as large as Salt Lake City employ a supervisor 
and one or more assistants. The unfortunate effects of neglect 
in this department should be remedied without delay. There 
should be a supervisor in charge of the department of art in- 
struction, and the director of art and construction in primary 
grades should be an assistant in the department. Eespon&i- 
bility should not be divided. If such severe economy as has 
been practiced in this instance had been really necessary, a 
less harmful plan to bring it about would have been to retain 
the supervisor in the field and divide the primary work be- 
tween the art supervisor and the primary supervisor, the latter 
taking the work in construction. This, however, is not advo- 
cated. Salt Lake City should employ a supervisor in this 
department and at least one assistant, if it is desired to keep 
the art work of the schools abreast of the times. As much 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 103 

supervision of art as this is found in cities no larger than Salt 
Lake City, and in some of these special teachers are employed 
in addition to teach drawing in the seventh and eighth grades. 

The art and handwork outlines. The designs used as 
plates in the special course of study in art and handwork for 
primary grades have elements that are too scattered, with a 
very poor relation of the several parts and proportions. The 
design shapes are clumsy and uninteresting, and have little or 
no relation to the objects which they are supposed to dec- 
orate. Free paper cutting is almost entirely ignored. This 
activity is most valuable to pupils in acquiring ability to repre- 
sent form and general proportions. It should be used fre- 
quently with young children as a means of free expression. 
The drawings printed in the course of study are very weak. 
The lettering is poor, and the arrangement uninteresting. 
Every plate reproduced in any course of art instruction should 
be a model in itself of good drawing, proper arrangement, ade- 
quate spacing, and well proportioned lettering. However, the 
photographs accompanying later circulars show articles in 
considerable variety, and these are well proportioned. It is 
fair to assume therefore that the next edition of the course in 
primary art and handwork will be comparatively free from the 
faults just noted. 

Drawing in the lower grades. The illustrative drawing in 
the primary grades should have a closer relation to primary 
grade reading and dramatics, and should occupy more of the 
time allowed for drawing. Too much of the primary construc- 
tion work is imitative or else is done entirely from dictation. 
In the kindergarten initiative is encouraged and the imagina- 
tion given scope. Seeing only the printed course of study in 
art and handwork one would infer that all this comes to an 
abrupt end in the first grade. The art supervisor in these 
grades should be in closer touch with the primary supervisor, 
so as to utilize stories and games for illustrative purposes. The 
outlines in construction for grades one to four, furnished in 
typewritten form by the supervisor, presumably for inclusion 



101 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

in a revision o^f the present printed conrse, meet this require- 
ment. They are sensible, well arranged, and adapted to sup- 
plement and illustrate school activities. 

Modelmg". Nearly all branches of modeling seem to be 
emphasized in each grade. We suggest that it would be better 
to emphasize low relief in certain grades, high relief in certain 
grades, modeling in the round in certain grades, and pottery 
in certain grades. 

Clodding in clay is hardly adapted for execution in the 
ordinary class room with its sloping desks. Casting in plaster 
of Paris should always be done in a separate room adapted to 
the pui-pose. The manual training shops in most schools are 
without classes some portion of each week. They might well 
be utilized for clay and plaster work. It would save much 
labor and conserve the time of teachers and pupils if the 
material for this work Avere kept and used in one place, instead 
of having to be distributed in small lots to the different rooms 
of a building. Some of the manual training rooms are large 
enough to afford space for modeling, even while other work 
is in progress. 

Other constructional activities. The work of book binding 
in the fifth grade is not made to serve a real end. Only the 
boys of a class now take this work, and since the portfolios 
that are made would serve but half the class, they are not 
used. These projects should serve the admirable purpose of 
giving concrete application to the otherwise abstract principle 
of design, by providing objects of real use which lend them- 
selves to decoration. 

There appears to be no connection between sewing and art. 
The principle of correlation, so well worked out in the academic 
part of the course of study, should find its most effective appli- 
cation in art and handwork both for girls and boys. The sub- 
ject of design is not developed in a progressive manner from 
grade to grade, as it might easily be if manual training, sewing, 
and art were included in the scheme of correlation. 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 105 

11, Manual Training-. 

A poor course of study. The shop work is limited to wood- 
working processes of a single type — cabinet making — and tlie 
related drawing is extremely limited in scope. The course 
lacks justification from the standpoint of application in Iocs! 
industries, as well as on the score of' educational value. The 
content of the course is extremely limited, considering the time 
given to the subject, and some of the work, for example letter- 
ing, comes far too early in the course. Working drawings are 
not, as a rule, taught with any degree of profit to grades below 
the eighth, yet a greater emphasis is placed on working draw- 
ings in the earlier part of this course than in the later part ; 
the fifth grade having 29 1-3 hours, the sixth 21 1-3 hours and 
the seventh 17 1-3 hours given to such work. 

Time spent on working drawings below the eighth grade 
is time practically wasted. The child does not get his working 
facts from the drawing, but depends upon the teacher. To 
understand the conventional procedure usual in making clear 
working drawings, greater maturity is required than the fifth, 
sixth, or seventh-grade pupil has attained. The plsce for 
drawings for children of these ages is in connection with de- 
sign, which this course wholly lacks. The uniformity in the 
work throughout the city, observed by the members of the 
survey, indicates that there is no attempt at adjustment to 
individuals or groups. 

Work needs enlarging. In the selection of projects one 
interest only seems to have been in mind, that of supplying 
needs for the home, and the same objects are made by all boys 
till the eighth grade is reached, when some little choice is 
allowed. It can hardly be assumed that all homes have the 
same needs. Additional interests should be drawn upon, such 
as sports, industrial studies, and trade activities. Printing, 
the study of home carpentry, the making of play-ground appa- 
ratus and simple laboratory equipment, readily suggest them- 
selves. As the course stands, little initiative is possible for 



106 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

teacher or pupil. The work as planned is stereotyped, and 
seems to have only a disciplinary aim. One material, wood, is 
involved throughout the entire course, and the kinds of this 
are limited. The most common uses of wood seem to be igr- 
nored. The shop processes connected with "squaring off" 
are continually emphasized, for four years. The printed steps 
are not correct as to teaching practice or shop practice. It 
seems unfortunate that this particular process should be given 
such prominence. 

Suggestions for improvement. The fifth and sixth grades 
would get more out of construction work if they should make 
a study of machines used in the mining industry on a working- 
model basis, introducing thin sheet metal, wire cloth, sott 
metals, and cement, in addition to wood. The making of foun- 
dry flasks and tools, and the casting of objects in soft metal 
would be appropriate projects. The study of transportation, 
involving the making of models of railroad tracks, switches, 
hoists, etc., would furnish occasions for the exercise of in- 
genuity. Bridge construction is also appropriate work. It 
is clearly suggested by the trestle over Salt Lake. 

In grades seven and eight more advanced work in metal as 
well as in wood is appropriate. It should be in part applied 
art, as hammered copper or brass, and, in part, along the line 
of applications of mechanics. 

The supervisor of manual training and the supervisor of 
art should co-operate in making out the course of study in 
these two phases of school work. These courses should be 
closely related. The art department should co-operate in 
working out designs in manual training. It needs this motive 
to keep the principle of design 'from becoming abstract, and 
in his manual work the pupil needs to have his attention di- 
rected toward attractiveness of form and appropriate decora- 
tion. Manual training as now conducted in Salt Lake City 
causes boys to resort to furniture catalogues for designs instead 
of working out their own ideas of form. They have no con- 
fidence in their ability to work out appropriate designs. Their 



THE COURSES OF STUDY. 107 

training tends to make them mere copyists. It is highly im- 
portant that the emphasis placed upon design in the course in 
art should have an outlet in the manual training activities. 

There is little to commend in the scheme of manual train- 
ing now in vogue in the Salt Lake City schools. It should be 
radically reorganized. 

12. Domestic Ai-ts and Science. 

A commendable feature of the work seen in this subject 
was the effort to adapt the instruction to the home needs of 
the children attending the different schools. The same course 
of study was not followed in all of the schools, nor were the 
grades in which the instruction was given the same. The 
teachers of the subject seemed to be making an earnest effort 
to adapt the work to the needs of the children. This is a 
desirable feature, and should be continued. It was the feeling 
of the survey staff that much more could be done in this line 
than has so far been done. 

There are too few properly equipped centers for this work 
in the schools of the city, and enough is not made of it, and in 
one of the high schools no opportunity is provided for girls 
who wish to continue this important study. 

13. Physical Training. 

This is considered at some length as a part of the health 
work of the schools, and the reader is referred to Chapter XII 
for a detailed consiSeration of the work in this subject of 
instruction. 



1( 8 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

CHAPTER VII. 



THE INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION AS SEEN 
DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS. 

(Van Sickle) 



I. THE INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION AS SEEN. 

The Quality of Instruction. Enough has already been 
said to indicate that the survey was favorably impressed by 
the teaching observed in the class rooms of the city. We 
found the work in general on a fairly high plane. The neces- 
sity of utilizing each year the services of so many young 
teachers just out of the normal school makes for a lower 
average level of instruction than is best for the system, but 
this tendency, so far as the common branches are concerned, 
is offset in large measure by the employment of expert super- 
visors in grammar and primary grades who supplement the 
weaknesses of the young teachers and, in time, bring them 
out as worthy members of the teaching force. The normal 
school sends them into the service with the right attitude 
toward the work, and this is one absolutely indispensable 
factor in their training. Thus they are prepared to accept, 
in the best possible spirit, the training in service which con- 
tinues through the early years of their employment. Without 
expert guidance from grade supervisors Salt Lake City's 
method of recruiting its teaching force would be fatal to 
progress ; but the weaknesses inherent in the plan of recruiting 
the force exclusively from the home product and at low sal- 
aries, is offset in such measure by the systematic after-train- 
ing which the system affords that better results are secured 
than might reasonably be expected. Much of the work done 
by the more experienced teachers is superior iu quality. 
Some mediocre work was seen, and some that would be called 
poor, but the greater part of the teaching must in fairness 
be classed as good. 



INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION SEEN. 109 

One important aid which the teachers have is the free 
text book system maintained by the city, and the freedom 
which the city enjoys in the selection of the books to be used. 
Fortunately, the State of Utah has had the good sense to ex- 
empt the city from following the uniform series of text books 
adopted for its district schools, and the city has made ex- 
cellent use of the exemption. The books supplied are both 
varied in character and excellent in quality. 

Classwork Observed. It was not possible in the time 
available to observe a class exercise in every school room of 
the city, but enough work was seen to afford a safe basis 
for opinion. Fully 300 class exercises were observed by the 
members of the survey, — some in full, and all for a sufficient 
length of time to catch the method and spirit of the work. 

The attainments of the children in reading, spelling, 
writing, arithmetic, and composition, as measured by the 
standard tests employed are seen, by reference to the tables 
and charts in Chapter VIII, to compare favorably with those 
of children of like grades in other cities where the same 
standards have been applied. In visiting classes, many of 
those in which the tests had been given received particular 
attention, because it seemed desirable to know whether the 
results of the tests were such as might have been anticipated 
by a competent observer. It is interesting to note that those 
members of the survey who applied the observation test to 
these classes, till recently the only test available, were not 
surprised to learn, after the tabulations had been completed, 
that the nineteen schools in which the standard tests were 
used had made a good showing. 

An Observed Characteristic. One marked characteristic 
of the Salt Lake City school system that impressed the mem- 
bers of the survey in their visits to class rooms was the 
cheerful, optimistic tone of the teachers. No burden seemed 
too great, no work so hard as to cause complaint. The fine 
professional attitude of the teaching force deserves the high- 
est commendation. As might be expected this attitude is re- 



1 10 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

fleeted iu the attitude of the ehildreu toward the school. Re- 
pression was nowhere in evidence, nor was any needed. The 
children were free and natural in their movements, yet there 
was no disorder. Not a single instance of cross word or 
stubborn manner was noticed by any member of the survey 
during- the entire three weeks of their stay in the city. Doubt- 
less cases of discipline do arise. However, the records show 
that offenses calling" for severity are of rare occurrence. 

Principals and Their Work. A principal is both an ad- 
ministrator and a supervisor. In his role as administrator he 
acts as the responsible head of his school in all matters of 
organization and management. He represents the school de- 
partment in his community, and in proportion as he has en- 
ergy and discretion and an aptitude for leadership he causes 
his school and its work to be known and appreciated and loy- 
ally supported by the people of his community. In the Salt 
Lake City school system the principal's position is one of 
dignity and authority. He is the head of his school in super- 
vision, as well as in administration. All directions to teach- 
ers given by the superintendent or by supervisors acting for 
him are given either through the principal or with his full 
understanding. His range of observation is more limited than 
theirs, since his work is confined to a single school. He needs 
to avail himself of the wider view of the supervisors who see 
the entire lield, in order to make the work of his school har- 
monize in essentials with the general policy of the admini- 
stration. 

There is a Avide range for variation within this field, and 
each principal is expected to make definite contributions 
toward the improvement of the service. He knows that if 
he wishes to try some plan which he thinks will work better 
than the customary one he will have full liberty to make 
trial of it. providing after explanation it does not appear to 
the superintendent to be contrary to the general policy of the 
schools. Not only does the principal have liberty to try new 
thina:s: he is definitely encouraged to seek paths leading away 



INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION SEEN. Ill 

from the beaten track of routine for in this direction lies 
growth. 

The principals' salary-schedule puts a premium upon this 
very thing by basing increase above a certain minimum upon 
university work. In consequence many of the principals have 
taken a college degree, some at the agricultural college and 
some at the state university. They seem to the survey staff 
to be well poised, self-respecting, and capable. It was the 
general feeling among the members that they had seldom 
if ever seen greater professional zeal on the part of prin- 
cipals in devising ways to improve their schools, both in 
matters of detail and in those larger phases of a school's life 
which affect life of the community and influence its ideals. 

The supervision of work in the common branches. Under 
the present system of recruiting the teaching force, the good 
results realized in the common branches in the Salt Lake City 
schools could not be realized if the supervision were not sys- 
tematic and intelligent, for whatever strength the work man- 
ifests must in large part be due to the wise guidance which 
makes seasoned veterans out of raw recruits. 

The efficiency of grade supervision may be shown in sev- 
eral ways, — first, of course in results; second in helpful pro- 
fessional relations which the supervisors establish in their 
contact with the teachers in the school rooms of the city; 
and, third, by the suggestions and directions they give to 
the teachers by means of detailed outlines, and orally in the 
teachers' meetings. 

As shown by standard tests and verified by observation 
of regular class work, the results are good. In judging 
whether helpful relations had been established, members of 
the survey accompanied the grade supervisors in certain oi' 
their visits for the purpose of actually seeing how they did 
the part of their work which brings them into contact with 
teachers and children in the school rooms. Two half days 
were spent in this way with the supervisor of grammar grades, 
and one with the supervisor of primary grades. Both super- 



112 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

visors apptvir to bo well equipped in personality, edueation, 
and professional skill, and it is the opinion of the survey 
tliat they have the riii'ht point of view o^ tlieir fnnetion in the 
system. This is that they are in the serviee for the purpose 
iu')t simply of inspeeting" the work of others, though, of eourse, 
this is a part of their duty, but for the larger }>urpose of 
helping the teaehers to teaeh well. To this end they make 
plain the meaning" of the neeessarily limited statements in 
the eourse of study, and are always ready to illustrate the 
proper method of proeedure by aetual teaehing. This is 
often the surest way of getting any proeedure understood. 
Any one who has had experience in sending- out written in- 
structions cannot fail to realize the utter impossibility of so 
wording a statement, involving many particulars, that all 
to whom it is addressed will interpret it in the same \>ay. Es- 
pecially is it trne that comparatively inexperienced teachers, 
of whom there are so many in the Salt Lake City schools, 
need the illustration which the supervisor stands ready to give. 

Promotion of pupils. The system in use for promotion 
to the high schools, depending" in part, as it does, upon the 
records made by children in formal examination, makes test- 
ing: an exceedingly important part of the supervisors' duty. 
In any promotion system involving set examinations the 
dang'cr is that the examination will loom larg'e in the minds 
of children and teachers, and that chief attention will be 
centered upon the more formal portions of the work. Even 
though examination results count only one-third, the members 
of the survey are not in favor of this phase of Salt Lake 
City's promotion scheme. They believe in examinations, both 
oral and written, as teaching exercises, but not as tests of fit- 
ness for promotion. The inevitable tendency of such exami- 
nations is to narrow instruction. 

Xevertheless, since examination for promotion is a fea- 
ture of the system, it is important to note Avhether the ex- 
aminations which are set tend toward formality and a nar- 
row interpretation of the course of study, or whether, as 



INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION SEEN. 113 

far as may be, they have the opposite tendency. The samples 
in language and arithmetic which follow show the character 
of the examinations which the grade supervisors set. It will 
readily be admitted that they are excellent samples of their 
kind. They would be extremely useful as teaching exercises. 
If examinations are to be employed as elements in the pro- 
motion of pupils from grade to grade, those of the type 
used in the Salt Lake City schools are as free from objection as 
any that could be devised. 

Types of examiilation tests used. To show the type of 
examinations given by the supervisors, and the mental qual- 
ities they are designed to test, we reproduce a few typical 
examination papers from the collection supplied us while at 
work in Salt Lake City. 

I. LANGUAGE. REPRODUCTION. 
A CLASS, THIRD GRADE. 

Thursday, P. M., January 22nd, after test paper and all nec- 
essary material have been furnished the pupils, read or tell, slowly, 
very deliberately, — in order that the children may be able to get 
the mental pictures, — ONCE only, the story which follows. 

Suggest three or four titles and allow each child to select his 
own. 

One very hot day a little boy was lying on his stomach under 
a big tree, reading a story. 

"Little boy," said his mother, "will you please go into the 
garden and bring me a head of lettuce?" 

"O, I — can't!" said the little boy, "I am too hot!" 

The little boy's father happened to be close by, weeding the 
flower bed, and when he heard this he lifted the little boy gently 
by the waistband, and dipped him into the great tub of cold water 
that stood ready for watering the plants. 

"There, my son, now you are cool enough to go and get the let- 
tuce for your mother, and the next time she asks you to do some- 
thing for her you may not feel so hot." 



Note how readily this would lend itself to reproduction 
with the picture 'idea in the child's mind. 



2U SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

II. GEOGRAPHY. 
B CLASS, THIRD GRADE. 

1. Where do the dairy farmers of Salt Lake Valley have their 
hay farms? 

2. Why must a dairy farm be near a community center or 
near a railroad station? 

3. Why must milk be kept very, very clean? 

4. When the milker begins his work what does he do? Why? 

5. Just as soon as he finishes milking a cow what does he 
do? Why? 

6. Why does each cow have a report card? Is her name on 
the card? 

7. How do they get the milk from the dairy farms to the 
cities? 

8. Why is all milk bottled now? 

9. Name the Utah counties that rank high in dairy products. 
10. What dairy product is Utah turning out in larger and larger 

quantities each year? 

III. GRAMMAR. 
FINAL EXAMINATION— EIGHTH B CLASS. 

GROUP I. 

1. Illustrate, (a) a phrase as subject of the sentence, (b) a 

clause as object of a preposition, (c) a co-ordinate clause, 
(d) a phrase modifying a noun used as subjective com- 
plement. : 

2. Choose the proper word and fill in the blanks of the fol- 

lowing sentences, also give reasons for your choice: 

(a) Not one of the boys (was, were) there. 

(b) The book (lay, laid) on the table yesterday. 

(c) Deal (gentle, gently) with them. 

(d) For you and (me, I) there are many oppor- 
tunities. 

(e) (Has, have).- either of you girls an extra pen- 
cil? 

3. Diagram the following sentences: 

At the back of Mount Tipanogas, not fifty miles away, is a 
glacier exhibiting all the characteristics of ice streams. 

4. Use each of the following words first as a noun, then as an 
adjective, then as a verb: — ^blind, sound, spring. 

5. Classify (a) words, (b) sentences, (c) phrases, according to 
use. 



INSTRUCTION AND SUPERVISION SEEN. 115 

GROUP II. 

6. Write the plural form of the following words: Tooth, Mary, 
Miss Clark, German, baby, journey, chief, wolf, father-in-law, hero. 

7. Give the principal parts of the following verbs : Go, sit, 
lie, dig, set, see, do, eat, come, lay. 

8. Account for the case form of the underlined pronouns in the 
following sentences: 

(a) WE girls are going on an excursion. 

(b) Did you see Mary and ME at the theater? 

(c) Neither speaker had prepared HIS speech. 

(d) I am in a higher class than SHE. 

(e) The money belongs to US four boys. 

9. White a sentence containing two subordinate clauses, one 
performing the office of an adjective, and the other the office of an 
adverb. 

10. Explain and illustrate the difference in meaning between the 
following words: 

At and in, between and among, beside and besides, by and 
with, in and into. 

Note that children compose in answering these questions. 
They are not analyzing the sentences of others. 

IV. ARITHMETIC. 
EIGHTH A AND B CLASSES. 
GROUP I. 

1. Solve: 54 3-4 -f 9 17-28 + 7-13 +8 2-7 + 13 2-3. 

2. Divide 49 5-7 by 21 3-5. 

3. Multiply .045 by 40.4 and divide the product by 6.45. 

4. Simplify: 3-4 of 20-27 



5-6 of 1 2-3 
5. Multiply 1,786,905 2-3 by 78 3-4. 

GROUP II. 

1. How many square feet in the walls, floor, and ceiling of a 
room 16 feet six inches long, by 12 feet 4 inches wide, by 9 feet 6 
inches high? 

2. A farmer bought 80 sheep for $500. He sold 45 per cent 
of them at $8.00 apiece, and the remainder at $7.50 apiece. Find 
his per cent of gain. 



lU! SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

3. At o\-2 per cent commission, what were the earnings in one 
week of an agent who sold property as follows: ?G.875. $5,400, $11,- 
400, and ?S,725? 

4. A steam boat makes a trip of 148.75 miles in 9.4 hours. Find 
the speed per hour. (Give the answer to the nearest hundredths). 

5. $75.50 was paid for oats at 45 cents a bushel. Find the total 
weight, reckoning 32 pounds to a bushel. 



Note the separate groupiug of problems by means of which 
a eomparison may be made between a pupil's ability in funda- 
mentals ami in reasoning-. 

The quality of the grade supervision. Sets of eireulars 
or bulletins issued by the grade supervisors, as interpretations 
of the course of study, have been placed at the disposal of the 
members of the survey. 

Tlie outlines in third-grade geogrraphy. issued in bulletin 
form by the primary supervisor, have already been commented 
on ns models of their kind. A grammar-grade bulletin on 
arithmetic has been quoted in connection with the discussion 
oif that subject. In a bulletin on hygiene, issued by the gram- 
mar-grade supervisor, an excellent way is pointed out to se- 
cure the observance 'by the pupils of hygienic rules: ''Habit 
iformation should constitute a chief part of tht, educational 
training in hygiene. The pupils will be rated on the quality 
of their class work and their daily physical habits." And in 
another bulletin the following sound characterization of the 
use of grammar is given for the benetit of principals and 
teachers of seventh and eighth grades : 

The teaching of grammar must be justified by the educational 
results that are immediate rather than those remote. These re- 
sults should be (a) clearer thinking, (b) increased ability to judge 
the quality of langueage. (,o"» increased power to interpret lang- 
uage. 

It is better to select a few topics in grammar and to teach them 
well than endeavor to teach too many topics. Whenever the facts 
and principles being studied have no concrete meaning to the child 
they are not serving the educational purpose intended. Verbal mem- 



DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS. 117 

ory has little place in the teaching of this subject. Classifications 
and definitions should follow concrete knowledge of many individual 
words or expressions and not precede this knowledge. In other 
words, they should grow out of the child's fund of information and 
his powers of comparison. 

Good points about the bulletins are : 

(1) Flexibility — the supervisor realizes that conditions 
determine the remedies to be applied. 

(2) Definiteness of directions. 

" (3) The ultimate end is never lost sight of. The va- 
rious means suggested are always practical. They reflect su- 
pervisors who have studied the results of the teachers' work 
and who possess readiness and resourcefulness in suggesting 
remedies for difficulties. 

(4) The insistence upon thoroughness, upon student 
power, not alone a mastery of facts, as an ultimate test of 
teaching is constantly emphasized. 

(5) The human element in the directions should tend 
to make the teachers sympathetic and stimulating. 

(6) The relation of subject to subject is well brought 
out indicating supervisors who see all of the subjects as parts 
of a plan to develop a single consistent purpose. 

II. DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS'. 

The Junior High School. The plan now well under way 
in Salt Lake City, by which grades seven, eight, and nine 
are organized departmentally as the Junior high school, is 
in line with progressive practice elsewhere. Already sixty- 
eight cities have such organizations, and many more are 
contemplating this feature. These organizations differ as to 
the grades included, whether two or three; as to housing, 
whether in a separate building, or with lower grades, or high 
school proper; and again as to the subjects included in the 
course of study. Some common characteristics appear. After 
the sixth grade, pupils are allowed some choice among stud- 



US SCITOOT. SURVEY REPORT. 

ios, tlu\\' aiitic'ipato soiuo of the Avovk ol" tlie liiii'h school proper, 
and tlu\\- are taught on the departmental plan. 

The plan as yet imperfectly developed. In Salt Lake 
City the organi/ation ealls ultimately for three grades, the 
seventh, the eighth and, as pupils of the t\vo g"rades beknv 
aeeomplish Avork whieh ealls for hig'h school credits, the ninth. 
A good hegimiing has been made, and the plan merits full 
development. U seems to the survey, however, that instead 
of scattering- the units of the org-anization throughout the city 
it would be far better, both tinancially and educationally, to 
bring the pupils of tliniior high school grades tog'ether in 
larg-er numbers. Since the schools throughout the city are 
now so crowded that rooms not intended for school use are 
being utilized as class rooms, it is evident that new buildings 
must be erected to relieve the congestion. The needed relief 
sluuild be provided by erecting: four or five new buildings ex- 
pressly for the Junior high school work, leaving existing build- 
ing:s for the use of g:rades one to six. This would make better 
grading possible and would provide larger classes, thus reduc- 
ing the per capita cost of instruction. Ir would also remove 
two grades, the seventh and eighth, from all existing build- 
ings, in itself a gain of no small importance. 

The work cannot be properly developed in so nmny small 
scattered eenters. Not enough differentiation can be ar- 
ranged to meet the varying needs of the children. At present 
pre-vocational needs of the children of Salt Lake City are not 
sufficiently provided for. A choice of German. Latin, or 
French is open to pupils, and in one center the arithmetic of 
the eighth grade has a commercial treiul : but there is little 
provision for those non-literary pupils who. though not de- 
fective in intellecr. are not sufficiently apt in dealing with 
symbols to get their education chiefly from books. Not only 
for these but also for another group of boys and girls, normal 
in every respect but Avho will inevitably leave school at an 
early age, courses should be ott'ered which give detinite indus- 
trial trainiufir. The work in such courses should differ from 



DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS. 119 

that in the ordinary manual training classes for boys, and 
classes in cooking and sewing for girls, in the greater variety 
of materials dealt with, in the increased time devoted to prac- 
tical work, and in the approach to the academic work through 
the industrial projects of the shop and home. Ten hours per 
week is not too much time to devote to this work. The courses 
should provide real vocational experience, with materials and 
processes as extensive as the leading occupations followed in 
the city and state. Through such experience the hoys and 
girls can form some notion of what they are fitted to do for a 
livelihood. 

Types of courses needed. The Junior high school scheme, 
when fully developed, should provide at least four courses at 
each center. One strongly academic has now been well worked 
out. Another tending toward the commercial has been begun. 
Another in practical arts for boys is needed, and still another 
in practical arts for girls. Both of these should include agri- 
culture as an optional subject. It should be po.ssible for a 
boy or girl who has taken any one of the courses to enter the 
Senior high school, if circumstances are such as to make a 
longer period of schooling possible. 

As has already been said, this variety of opportunity can 
not be offered in scattered centers. Four or five buildings 
Avith ample shop and laboratory facilities are needed. Each 
should be conveniently located to receive pupils from several 
six-grade schools. On the basis of the present enrollment, 
four schools, each with a capacity for 950 pupils, would accom- 
modate the seventh, eighth and ninth grades of the entire city. 
For the present, one of these would as now be the new high 
school building. 

In the year 1914-15 there were 1616 pupils enrolled in the 
seventh grade, 1243 in the eighth and 856 in the ninth. The 
falling off in attendance in the eighth grade was 23 per cent; 
in the ninth it was 47 per cent. It may be confidently ex- 
pected that after the Junior high school plan has been fully 
developed, with differentiated courses of study and in build- 



120 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

iiii^s of suitable plan and equipment, this heavy mortality at 
the end of the eig-hth grade Avill be greatly reduced, and a fifth 
school would be needed. It ought to be the purpose of every 
city to carry as nuiny pupils as possible through a six-year 
elementary and some one of the three-year Junior high school 
courses. Normally these would be completed by the close of 
the fifteenth year, or at the end of the compulsory school 
period. That Salt Lake City fails to accomplish such a pur- 
pose now may be seen by an inspection of Figures 13 and 14, 
which show the ages and grades of the pupils at present in the 
schools. 

Vocational training. Approximately 1600 children leave 
school each year in various grades after the sixth, 800 boys and 
800 girls. It is important to know what preparation they have 
had for the practical duties that await them. The exact loss 
by grades, computed from the Age Grade Distribution sheet, is: 

Grade YI to YII 215 

Grade VII to YIII 253 

Grade YIII to IX 552 

Grade IX to X 312 

Grade X to XI 145 

Grade XI to XII 117 Total 1594 

Approximately two-thirds of those leaving are from grades 
below the ninth, and eighty-four per cent of them are from 
grades below the Senior high school. Yocational preparation 
is seen therefore to be chielly a problem for the Junior high 
school and the grades immediately beloAv it. 

Vocational training in any city must have reference to the 
oi>portunities for employment which the city afl:'ords. for it is 
safe to assumt^ that the majority of the boys and girls now in 
the schools will find their place in the life of the local com- 
munity. "We cannot know what occupation any child will 
follow, but from census reports we do know what occupations 
are open to choice, not only in Salt Lake City, but also in the 
couutiy as a whole, and what proportion, of the population is 
now engaged in each occupation. 



DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS. 



121 



Vocations in Salt Lake City. The vocational distribution 
of the entire wage-earning population of Salt Lake City, male 
and female, according to the census reports for 1910, was as 
shown in the following table : 



TABLE NO. 14. 
OCCUPATIONAL STATISTICS FOR SALT LAKE CITY. 

(U. S. Census, 1910, Vol. IV.) 



Total Population 92 

I. Total population 

37,730 or 40.7%. 1. 

566 or 0.6%. (a) 

Most important ■] 

904 or 0.9%. (b) 
11,564 or 12.5%. (c) 



Most important 
Over 200 in each 



,777. Salt Lake City, 1910. 

Male Female 

10 years of age or over 37,905 35,627 

Engaged in all occupations 30,279 7,451 

Agrig. forestry and An Husb 553 13 

Farmers — farm' laborers 195 5 

Gardeners, nurserymen, florists . . . 161 7 

Stock raisers, tenders 157 

Extraction of minerals 903 1 

Manf. and Mech. industries 10,260 1,304 

Apprentices 239 31 

Blacksmiths — forgemen 273 

Brick — Stone masons 367 

Builders — Bldg. Contractors 586 2 

Carpenters 1,425 

Compositors — Typesetters 240 12 

Dressmakers — Seamstresses 1 546 

Electricians — El. Engineers 448 

Stationary Engineers . . . : 304 

Laborers in building trades 1,492 20 

Machinists — Tool makers 516 

Manufucturers, Supt., — Officials... 420 8 

Milliners — M. dealers 10 192 

Painters, varnishers, etc 494 

Plasterers 151 

Plumbers — Gas — Steam fitters .... 313 

Food Industries 106 155 

Jron — Steel industries 290 

Tailors— Tailoresses 183 19 



122 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



4,235 01- i.6^/c. (d) Transportation 4,038 

Draymen, teamsters, expressmen . 851 

Chauffeurs 65 

Steam Ry. Conductors 208 

Over 200 in each Street Ry. Conductors 145 

Brakesmen 161 

Locomotive Engineers 323 

Locomotive Firemen 191 

Motormen 131 

Laborers 667 

Summary: 

Male 

Water transportation 11 

Road — Street transportation 1,039 

Railroad work 2,183 

Exp., Post. Tel.— Telephone 346 

Other transportation pursuits 459 

4,038 

6.454 or 7' < . (e) Trade 5,726 

Bankers, Brokers — money lenders 290 

Clerks in stores 599 

Commercial travelers 394 

Over 150 in each Deliverymen 475 

Insurance agents — Officials 175 

Real estate dealers 370 

Retail dealers 1,630 

Salesmen — Saleswomen 1,207 

Wholesale dealers — Importers . . . Ill 

1,583 or 1.7';;. (f) Public Service 1,569 

Firemen 69 

Guards, watchmen, bookkeepers . . 120 

Laborers 20S 

Marshals, sheriffs, detectives 41 

AH Officials — Inspectors (C.-Co.) 85 

Officials— Inspectors (St. U. S.) . . 112 

Policemen 73 

Soldiers, sailors, — marines 846 

Other pursuits 15 

3,342 or 3.6<"( . (g) Professional Service 2,146 

Authors, editors, reporters 98 

Civil — Mining engineers 444 

Designers, draughtsmen, inventors 118 



197 



^emale 





6 

183 



197 

728 
5 

274 
9 



2 

8 

64 

339 

1 

10 



1.196 
12 

15 



DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS. 123 

Over 100 in each Lawyers — Justices 273 2 

Musicians — Teachers of music... 174 195 

Physicians — Surgeons 188 26 

Teachers 113 614 

Nurses 9 112 

5,016 or 5.4%. (h) Domestic and Personal Service... 2,253 2,763 

Barbers, hairdressers — -.manicures 266 75 

Bartenders 275 

Boarding — Lodging hs. keepers... 63 331 

Housekeepers — Stewards 15 135 

Janitors 211 59 

Launderers — L'dresses (not in Is.) 7 201 

Over 100 in each Laundry operatives 105 325 

Midwives — Untrained nurses 22 249 

Porters 141 

Restaurant — Cafe keepers 106 16 

Saloon keepers 99 1 

Servants 417 1,227 

Waiters 268 81 

4,066 or 4.4%. (i) Clerical Occupations 2,827 1,239 

Agents, canvassers, collectors 366 14 

Bookkeepers — Cashiers 804 315 

Clerks (not in stores) 1,150 156 

Messenger — Office boys 294 11 

Stenographers — Typewriters 213 743 



MANUFACTURING CONDITIONS. 

Salt Lake City. 1909. 1904. 1899. 

No. of Manfg. Establishments 245 192 J 54 

Av. No. of Wage Earners 4,287 2,776 2,154 

Value of products $13,351,000 $7,544,000 $4,279,000 

"Values added my manufacturing 6,736,000 4,029,000 2,302,000 

Wage 
Utah. Employing Earners 

No. of manuf . Estabs. in 749 11,785 

Total popl. of Utah 373,351 

Total popl. of Salt Lake City 92,777 

Salt Lake City has 33% of establishments of State of Utah. 
Salt Lake City employs 36% of wage earners of State of Utah. 
Per cent of total popl. engaged as wage earners in manufacturing 
establishments, 4.6%. 



l-.M SCHOOL sruvKY Kv:roKT. 

b'rom ili\'ado to doo;ulo tliero Nvill doubtless be slight 
ehauii'es in the voeational distrihution shown in the tabU\ but 
the proportions are not likely to ehaiiire materially in the next 
twenty years, hei\ee boys nt^w in the sehools. it' they ivniaiu iu 
Salt Lake Oity. will be enoai^ed in the oeenpatioiis listed above 
about iu the same proportion that obtained in 1910. Tt' they go 
elsewhere they will tind voeational demands widely ditl'erent. 
The present distribution of wage earners in Salt Lake City, iu 
the nine leading oeeupations. is given in Table No. o. page IT. 

Vocational education needed. It would uu\nitestly be im- 
possible to prepare eaeh ot" the SOO boys who leave sehool each 
year speeitieally for the partieular oeeupation whieh he will 
follow out ot" the vast variety open to ohoiee. even if the ehoiee 
of eaeh were kitowu iu advanee. A general voeational training 
intetuied to lay a broad foundation of voeational understanding 
may, however, be given to all. A still more secure foundation 
may be laid for eaeh of tiu^ half dozen broad tlolds of human 
labor represented in the eity. the work in eaeh tield being 
taken only by those who intend to tind their speeialty there. 

The boy should be permitted to try himself out in as many 
voeational tields as possible. The range of experimental aetiv- 
ities should be as wide as the resources of the eity will permit. 
There slunild be work with wood of all varieties, and in eon- 
neetion with the woodwork experiences in the use of finishes 
of every sort. There should be woi'k with metal, leather, clay. 
iuul textiles. There should be electric work, printing, garden- 
ing, buying, selling, banking. The list might be greatly ex- 
tended. 

Sewing and garmenr making for girls already receives 
attention, but luH enough time is given to the work to make 
it of high voeational value. Some speeialization should be open 
to girls who will not pursue their education beyond the Junior 
high school. This is true also of domestic science. In the 
good beginning thus far made in teaching these subjects the 
schools are reiulering a far-reaching social service. Training 



DESIRABLE EXTENSIONS. 125 

for clerical service is well provided for in tlie present courses 
of study. Vocational training for girls should look beyond 
the commercial and clerical work which will necessarily be but 
temporary, and toward the wise management of a home in all 
its varied relations. 

The Junior high school organization is well adapted to 
foster the wide variety of prevocational or try-out activities 
through which only can a boy or girl be sure of making a wise 
choice of vocation. 

The Senior high schools. The Senior high schools, two 
in number, ofi'er seven courses. Classical, Scientific, English, 
Normal Preparatory, Mechanics' Arts, Domestic Science, and 
Commercial. In view of the importance of agriculture in the 
Salt Lake Valley a good course in agriculture should be added. 
With this addition the high school opportunities furnished 
would be sufficiently varied to meet present needs. Provision 
for variation from a single fixed course, alike for all, has been 
in vogue in high schools throughout the country for many 
years, whereas in the upper grades of elementary schools a 
more conservative policy, amounting to rigid adherence to a 
single course, has till quite recently been the universal policy. 
The Salt Lake City high schools have been of the progressive 
class, and they are now able, without at all disturbing their or- 
ganization, to receive pupils ifrom the new Junior high school 
courses of the modern varied type and carry them forward 
along the lines oif work started in the seventh grade. For this 
reason the high school situation has not seemed to call for 
much attention from the survey. 

The small percentage of pupils enrolled in the high schools, 
and the heavy mortality during the first year, as shown by Fig- 
ures 14 and 15, seem to indicate that the high schools are not 
making the educational opportunities they provide as apparent 
to the young people of the community as they should, and 
perhaps are not adjusting their work as closely as they might 
to the individual needs of the pupils who enter the schools. 

Ungraded classes. The Junior high school does not re- 



12(5 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

eoive pupils until thoy have oouipleted the work of six grades. 
The statisties of retardation in the Salt Lake City schools 
disclose the fact, common in the experience of all school sys- 
tems, that there are many children in the lower grades who, 
though not feehle minded, are slow to grasp the fnudamcntals 
which, in the main, constitute the work of the tirst six grades. 
They caimot work to advantage in regular classes becanse they 
need more individiial attention than they cau get there. Fail- 
ing of promotion term after term they become discouraged and 
inditferent. It is expensive to keep them in the regular classes 
becanse they must be taken over the same ground repeatedly, 
owing to their inability to keep the pace of the class. Not 
only is it expensive, but it is also wasteful of human life and 
capacity. Children of this type can master the rudiments of 
education if allowed to move forward slowly but regularly. 
They need to be organized in special classes of moderate size, 
and to move forward at their OAvn pace, without repeating. 
Such groups are sometimes called auxiliary classes, sometimes 
ungraded classes, 

A few such classes have been organized in Salt Lake City. 
On a false theory of economy some of them have recently been 
discontinued. Each large school should have at least one sueli 
class. Fnlike some of those now conducted, such classes 
sliould be managed with no expectation of meeting grade re- 
quirements of the coui"se of study. The teacher should regu- 
late the course in accordance with individual needs, and there 
should be much objective work. Practical arts, of a less ad- 
vanced type than those in the Jiiuior high school, should pro- 
vide motive for reading. Avriting, composition, and arithmetic. 
Instead of reducing the number of ungraded classes the city 
should increase their number, and should adjust the character 
of the work done in them, not on the basis of the regular 
cotii*se of study, but on the basis of adaptation to the peculiar 
aptitudes of the pupils. This subject is considered more in 
detail in Chapter IX. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEAKURKI). 127 



CIJAI'TKR VJir. 

THE EFFICIENCY 01^' THI<: INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 

(Sears.) 

Purpose of this section of the report. To be fil)U; to stale 
in quantitative terms just what the efficiency of instruction in 
a given school or subject is, is a recent innovation in school 
practice w^hicJi is })Ccorning of increasing importance as scales 
for this purpose are perfected. It is not enough to get results 
in teaching, but we must be able to define those results. And 
it should be emphasized that, until this can be dorifi, we really 
know yary little about tlic rr'siiits obtained. 

It is the pvirpoHd here t(^ report the results of a series of 
tests which were designed to measure the present state of 
efficiency of instruction in the Salt Lake City schools in those 
subjects which are intended to provide the children with the 
common tools of knowledge, and which everyone recognizes 
as the basis of all education. 

Extent of the tests made. To this end tests were given in 
the subjects of reading, writing, spelling, composition, and 
arithmetic, to from 9 to 22 per cent of the children in the 
elementary schools of the city. For this purpose 19 of the 30 
schools were selected, taking care to touch every type of com- 
munity from the standpoint of population, social and economic 
status, and general school conditions as to size of school, 
quality of building and in.struction, etc. From each of these 
schools the "B" or upper classes were chosen for the tests. 

Whatever results appear are therefore fully typical of the 
schools as a whole, probably little if any different from what 
they would have been had every child iii the system been 
included in the test. Dealing with the upper classes of each 



128 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

grade, and at the close of the school year, the results repre- 
sent practically the final achievements of the different grades. 

Nature of tests given. The tests used are all standardized 
tests, and while no adequate explanation of any one of them 
can be given here, it should be noted that each one has been 
specially designed for its purpose, and not only represents the 
best scientific achievement in that line, but has proved its 
value in practical use in many school systems in teaching and 
supervision. 

Results obtained from these tests in other cities are there- 
fore serviceable, and fully trustworthy for comparative pur- 
poses here. 

What such tests should reveal. The forces and conditions 
determining the results of teaching these, as well as all other 
subjects, are extremely varied. The responsibility of the 
school lies in discovering, defining, and controlling those dif- 
ferent factors, to the end that the greatest economy in instruc- 
tion shall obtain. Time allotment, teaching equipment, method, 
hygienic and aesthetic conditions of the room, etc., are all 
factors of importance in determining the efficiency of the in- 
struction which can be attained, but it is clearly recognized 
that no single factor is so great as that of individual differ- 
ences in mental ability. The school can easily control the 
time, equipment, and method factors, but it cannot determine 
original mental endowment. This only emphasizes the fact 
that it is the function of the school to organize and operate 
in terms of child nature, justifying its plan of supervision, pro- 
motion, grading, methods of instruction, etc., always in terms 
of the degree to which they aid in the adjustmnet of the 
school to the individual needs of children. 

Such tests as are employed here are well adapted to the 
problem of finding out how fully the schools are meeting this 
important responsibility. A bad classification of children is 
a greater handicap than can be offset by the greatest excel- 
lence in methods, supervision, or equipment. 

How the tests were conducted. With the exception of 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 1^9 

writing and composition the tests were conducted by members 
of the survey staff, all of whom were engaged at this work 
for from three to five full days. The tests were given under 
as nearly normal schoolroom conditions as was possible. The 
papers were scored by teachers and principals under the care- 
ful instruction of a member of the staff, no teacher scoring her 
own papers where more than mere counting or checking was 
involved. The results of the scoring and recording were gone 
over with sufficient care to guarantee that no unusual errors 
crept into the final results. A few papers, and papers for a 
very few classes, had to be discarded because instructions were 
not carefully followed. It is believed that the results as shown 
below are fully trustworthy as evidence of the efficiency of 
instruction in these subjects as they are being handled at the 
present time. 

I. THE TEST IN SPELLINGS'. 

Status of spelling^ in the city's cmriculum. The subject 
of spelling is begun in the second grade, and continued through 
the eighth. The average amount of time given to the subject 
is approximately 100 minutes per week for all grades save the 
third, which devotes 150 minutes per week to this subject. 
(See Table No. 12.) The general suggestions and plans out- 
lined in the printed course of study for spelling are excellent. 
The work is carefully correlated with other work in English, 
and the spelling text is supplemented by lists of words made 
up by the supervisors and teachers. It should be said at the 
outset that the amount of time devoted to this subject is at 
least 25 per cent too high, 50 per cent in ease of grade three, 
and that a fair interpretation of the results of this test must 
bear this fact in mind. 

The test and how it was conducted. The test, which was 
given to the "B" class in each of the grades, 3 to 8 inclusive, 
in nineteen schools, was that devised by Dr. Leonard P. Ayers, 
which he used in the Springfield survey,* and which he has 



130 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



latoi* ouibodiod in a oomplete spelling seale.**. 
eomposod of tlie following sixty -words: 



The test is 





(^KAOK -.]. 




GRADE 4. 




GRADE 5. 


1. 


till 


1. 


forty 


1. 


several 


.> 


point 


o 


rate 


o 


leaving 


o. 


state 


o. 


ehildren 


o. 


publish 


4. 


reaily 


4. 


prison 


4. 


o'clock 


5. 


almost 


5. 


title 


5. 


running 


t;. 


liigh 


li 


getting 


6. 


known 


1 . 


event 


1 . 


need 


1 . 


secure 


s. 


done 


J^. 


th row- 


s. 


wait 


9. 


pass 


9. 


feel 


\^. 


nnmner 


10. 


Tuesiiay 


10. 


speak 


10. 


flight 




CiKAOK d. 




GRADE 7. 




GRADE S. 


1. 


deeide 


1. 


distriet 


1. 


petrified 


.1 


general 


o 


eonsideration 


o 


t a rift 


o. 


manner 


3. 


athletics 


8. 


emergency 


4. 


too 


4. 


distinguish 


4. 


corporation 


5. 


antomobile 


a. 


evidence 


5. 


convenience 


(i. 


vietini 


ll 


eonferenee 


0. 


receipt 


I . 


liospital 


1 . 


aiuendntont 


( . 


corilially 


<;. 


neither 


j%. 


liquor 


s. 


discussion 


J). 


toward 


0. 


experience 


9. 


appreciate 


10. 


business 


10. 


receive 


10. 


decision 



*Tho Public Schools of Springfield. lUiuois. An educational sur- 
vey. Division of Education. Russell Sage Foundation, bulletin E 137. 
1913. 

**A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. Leonard P. Ayers, 
Division of Education. Russell Sago Foxmdation, 1915. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



131 



Each word was selected from the ]000 words found, after 
a leng'thy investigation, to be the 1000 most commonly used 
words in writing, and placed in groups by grades, on the basis 
of an extended test of each word in the schools of 84 cities. 
Each word appears in the grade in which it was spelled cor- 
rectly on an average by 70 per cent of the children. "We may 
therefore accept 70 per cent as the standard which each grade 
in Salt Lake City should attain, if the instruction in this sub- 
ject is as good as the average in a large number of cities in 
the United States. 

The list of words was pronounced to the children by the 
regular classroom teacher, in the presence of a member of the 
survey staJff, ordinary class procedure obtaining in matters of 
writing, pronunciation, explanation of words of more than one 
meaning, etc. The papers were collected, immediately scored 
by the teacher, and turned over to the member of the survey 
in charge. 



TABLE 15. SPELLING. 

DISTRIBUTION OF AVERAGE SCORES BY SCHOOLS', BY 

GRADES, AND FOR THE CITY AS A WHOLE. 

(Ayres Test.) 



School. 



Total for City 

Emerson School 

Forest School 

Grant School 

Hamilton School . . . . 

Jackson School 

Jefferson School . . . . 

Lafayette School 

Lincoln School 

Lowell School 

Onequa School 

Oquirrh School 

Poplar Grove School. 
Riverside School . . . . 

Sumner School 

Training School 

Wasatch School 

Washington School . . 

Webster School 

Whittier Schdol 



Total 
Ave. 



Grade. 



86 

81 
83 
86, 
89 

77, 




1 

9 

1 
5 
2 

89.0 
84.5 
89.0 
92.4 
84.4 
89.1 
87.8 
84.8 
83.3 
68.9 
93.0 
82.9 
84.4 
91.8 



82.2 

80.2 
79.5 



VIII I VII 
87TT 

95.7 
78.8 
89.1 
95.2 
82.3 
88.7 
82.4 
93.3 
94.4 
82.3 
87.8 
90.0 
89.7 
80.6 
71.0 
91.3 
91.3 
86.0 
95.4 



78.2 
86.5 
84.6 

86.1 
73.1 

89.5 
76.8 
76.1 

97.9 

76.8 
89.0 



VI 
8678" 

82.5 
82.1 
88.8 
85.8 
90.4 
90.0 
90.3 
92.5 
98.3 
83.9 
96.9 
86.9 
84.1 
73.8 
65.2 
98.4 
89.7 
86.9 
97.1 



V 



87.6 

81.4 
94.5 
92.5 
92.6 
94.6 
92.0 
82.8 
91.1 
96.4 
85.9 
93.0 
76.8 
77.1 
90.0 
83.1 
96.9 
79.3 
86.5 
89.7 



IV 
78.8 

62.4 
77.0 
79.5 
80.9 
64.5 
85.3 
75.9 
87.8 
98.7 
85.9 
85.1 
87.4 
81.0 
76.6 
58.8 
78.7 
73.9 
79.9 
85.8 



III 
8979" 

84.1 
94.5 
90.7 
94.4 
92.5 
92.0 
90.6 
86.5 
91.2 
95.9 
85.7 
93.9 
98.7 
95.5 
66.4 
97.2 
75.8 
87.3 
94.4 



132 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



The results of the test. The results of this test appear in 
the t'olknviiig tables aud diagrams, which preseut the facts by 
sehools, by grades, for the city as a whole, and in comparison 
with results obtained in three other cities where this test has 
been used recently. 

In Table Xo. 15 the average score for each grade in each 
school, graded on the scale of 100 per cent, is presented in 
detail, ami at the top, combined for the city as a whole by 
grades. The important features of this table . are shown 
graphically in Figure 16, in which the upper margin of the 
shaded surface indicates the highest average score made by 
any grade in each of the schools, the lower margin the lowest 
average, the central line the complete school average, aud the 
straight line the average for the city. 

Certain facts stand out here which may be studied in 
detail in the above table. First of all, the ditference in the 



2 
ttCt; 



s2 r; z -» ^ ce 



od. — 






i § 

^ Lj _ t- ccr or 



i < s g ^ 

-r CO CO 



uu^ Q;<ia:o'--U-:^>uj--Q_^:s:5coco^ — 

^uj uici)ii-i>-5_i_j_jOOQ.ct;cOfZ$5:>5 

75J755J7.4 3 C- 33356736 
5 J 




^AAAA4A:5SSA'5-SS'4A-4 g 4 



owfsr Atemse 



FIG. 16. RESULTS OF THE SPELLING TEST, BY 

SCHOOLS. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



133 



efficiency of different grades in the same school. From the 
figures above and below the margins, it may be seen that the 
fourth grade in the Emerson school made only slightly above 
60 per cent, whereas grade seven made above 95 per cent. 
The Jackson school is a similar extreme case, which contrasts 
with the record of the Jefferson school. Either the average 
child in the fourth grade of the Emerson, Jackson, and Train- 
ing schools cannot be promoted in spelling this year, or, if so, 
then the basis for promotion in grade 4 must be much lower 
than that used in promoting children in the grades of these 
same schools which are represented by the upper margin of 
the diagram. 

The second suggestion offered by the diagram is the dif- 
ference in school averages, varying as they do, from slightly 
under 70 per cent to 93 per cent. One must ask if that dif- 
ference represents the difference in the basis of promotion in 
spelling in the different schools, since these children are to 
come up for promotion in a few weeks. Similarly a compar- 
ison of schools based on the best average score made by any 
grade, or on the lowest average score made by any grade, or 
a comparison of any given school with the city average, shows 
this same wide diversity of standards which exists between dif- 
ferent schools, and, in several cases, between different grades 
in the same school. 

TABLE NO. 16. 
SHOWING THE PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN OF EACH 
GRADE WHO ATTAINED EACH OF THE POS- 
SIBLE SCORES IN SPELLING. 

(Ayers Test.) 



Grade 


Score. 




100 1 90 1 80 1 70 


60 50 
15.8 2.4 

4.5 2.7 
5.3 2.7 

5.6 2.7 
11.4 4.3 

3.7 1.3 
6.2 2.7 


40 30 20 


10 





VIII 


31.6|20.6|15.310.4 


3.1 0.8 






VII 

VI 

V 


39. 8|24. 5119.3 
39.624.8|17.6 
43.126.2|12.9 
23.821.0|18.7 
53.220.2|12.4 
40.0|23.1|16.1 


7.1 
7.2 
7.2 
14.2 
6.7 
8.8 


1.2 0.5 0.2 

1.6 0.9 .... 

1.7 0.6 


0.2 
0.3 




IV 


3.5 2.3 0.8 
1.2 0.7 0.3 
1.8 1.0 0.2 






Ill 

Total for City 


0.3 
0.1 





134 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Another fact which comes out in this diagram is that grade 
four most often ranks lowest, and that grade three most often 
ranks highest. It will be recalled that grade three devotes 
50 per cent more time to spelling than do the other grades. 

Results of the test by individuals. Such diversities as 
these suggest the importance of studying the children indi- 
vidually rather than by schools or grade groups. This is done 
in Table No. 16, which shows the percentage of children from 
each grade, and for the city as a whole, who attained each of 
the possible scores. 

These facts are shown graphically in Figure 17, in which 
the children of each grade may be studied individually, and 
in comparison with those of other grades, and with those for 
the city as a whole. 

Looking first at the distribution for the entire city, includ- 
ing the records of nearly 1000 children — over one-fifth of all 
the children in the elementary schools — it will be seen that 40 
per cent, or 4 oif every 10 children tested, spelled all the ten 
words correctly; that over 20 per cent, or 2 of every 10, 
spelled nine words correctly, and that all the other scores, 
except zero, are represented in the diagram by a rapidly de- 
creasing per cent of the children. The distributions for grades 
five, six, and seven are much similar to this, while those for 
grades eight, four, and three are different. More than half 
the children in grade three, and less than a fourth of the chil- 
dren in grade four, attained perfect scores. Similar compar- 
isons may be made by reference to the median score, which is 
indicated for each section of the diagram. The median or 
middle score for all the 3988 children tested is 91 per cent, 
which means that one-half of the group, or 1994 children, at- 
tained a score above 91, while the same number fell below 91. 
As was shown by Figure 16, grade four ranks lowest with a 
median of 82, and grade three highest with a median of 96. 

Uneven ability shown. It is clear from this showing that 
the test was too easv for two-fifths of the children in the Salt 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



135 



Lake City schools. How many more words of equal difficulty 
these children might have spelled can only be conjectured. It 
is enough to say that two-fifths of the children of these grades 



<feOF 



n 



"Ln 



GRADE ML 

SZ9 CHILOHCM 



Scoke: uo 90 10 w ^ & 4c 0e 



GRADEYTL 

SSl CHILDREN 



)» w (0 70 M a « JO 30 <o 



♦o- 


l-l 


S« 




*>- 








lO • 




L 


6RADE:2I 

634. CHILOKPf 




ENTIRE CITY 

39Sg CHILDREN - 



iOO 90 to 10 ^ ^ AO 30 3j0 



IM 90 U~10 U> So At 30 ZO 



GRADEIZ: 

TOZ. CHIUOHeN 



100 don 7DW50«)3O 



GRADES 

Tia CHILDKEI* 



I00 30ioio uSb tcsc U 



GRADE IL 



5 30 %o lomso tcx 20 10 



SPELLING TEST. 



FIG. 17. SHOWING FOR THE CITY AS A AA^HOLE, AND 

BY GRADES, THE PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN 

ATTAINING EACH OF THE POSSIBLE SCORES. 



iph? school survey report. 

have loiiiT since boon ready for promotion, according to the 
standard of this test. 

There is another feature of this diagram, however, that 
must not be overUioked. and that is the fact that in each grade 
there are a lew cliiUlreu who fail to spell more than luilf of 
the ten words correctly. For the city as a whole this group 
amounts to nearly six per cent, or approximately 250 of the 
children tested. ^Yhile it is true that Salt Lake City is not 
mdike other cities in this respect, yet this question should be 
nu^t squarely. AYhile the details for individual classes cannot 
be shown here, the sanu^ condition which obtains with respect 
to whole grades in the city obtains also in single class rooms. 

Pedagogically this makes a teaching situation which no 
teacher can hope to meet adequately. YVitli such extremes of 
abilities in a class, some children may dawdle their time away, 
while others are being overworked. It should be remembered 
that dawdling is not mere resting, or waiting. On the con- 
trary, it is a constructive part of the child's training, which is 
developing for him slovenly, half-hearted habits of work which 
do not make use of his full capacity for achievement. With 
the child who ranks far below his class average the case is 
dittV-rent. It is the unusual teacher who does not finally count 
him a hopeless case, and permit him to drift, or, to save her 
own teaching reputation, drive him along by the most uupeda- 
gogical nunhods until the process finally eliminates him. 

Comparison ^rith three other cities. A comparison of the 
showing in Salt Lake City with that made in three other cities 
in which this test has been used recently seemed desirable, 
and is i-iresented in Table Xo. 17. From this it will be seen 
that the Salt Lake City schools rank well above those of the 
other cities in all grades except the eighth, and that, for the 
city as a whole, they stand G per cent above all the others. 

Discounting this showing liberally because it represents 
the final product of the grades, the midyear classes not being 
included, and it can still be said that Salt Lake City ranks 
high, probably highest 'for the city as a whole, and for at least 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



137 



TABLE NO. 17. 

SPELLING TEST-hSALT LAKE CITY COMPARED WITH 

OTHER CITIEvS. 

(Ayers Test.) 



City. 


Grade. 


Ave. 




II 


1 "I 


1 I^ 


V 


VI 


VII 

~7370^ 

76.2 

79.7 

87.1 


1 VIII 
75.0 
89.4 
76.3 
82.2 




Springfield, 111. . 
*Butte, Mont. .. 
**Oakland, Cal.. 
Salt Lake City. . 


70.0 
86.2 
60,4 


65.0 
81.8 
66.7 
89.9 


70.0 
78.7 
75.9 
78.8 


72.0 
84.5 
84.7 
87.6 


68.0 
75.0 
80.2 
86.8 


70.0 
80.3 
76.5 
86.0 



♦Includes only B classes. 

**The test in Oakland was given at the beginning of the year, and 
includes results from both A and B classes. 

Note: Salt Lake City should rank slightly higher than Oakland 
since the test included only the B section of the grade. 



three of the grades. But again, reference must be made to 
the fact that in Springfield the amount of time given to spell- 
ing ranges from to 40 minutes per day, e. g., from to 200 
minutes per week; that in Oakland the range is from 10 to 200 
minutes per week, with an average of slightly less than 100 
minutes; while the range in Salt Lake City is from 30 to 300 
minutes per week, with an average of 115 minutes. "While 
the question of time cannot be settled absolutely for all classes 
and schools alike, the best investigations of this subject do not 
seem to warrant the recommendation of more than 75 minutes 
per week as a maximum amount of time for the subject of 
spelling. While Salt Lake City has made a decidedly high 
showing, the large time cost which it places upon the schools 
must be taken into account. 

Nor must this excellent showing in general obscure the sit- 
uation pointed out above. It is true that this brings to light 
one of the most difficult problems in school organization. It 
is true too that much the same situation exists in other cities. 
In a highly complex system the individual child is too apt to 
be lost in the midst of machinery. The cure is individual pro- 
motion, at reasonably frequent intervals, on the basis of single 



138 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

su'bjeets, instead of grade or g-roiips of subjects. There are 
many difficulties attending the administration of such a rem- 
edy, but with adequate supervision it can be accomplished. 

2. THE TEST IN COMPOSITION. 

Some form of language work is taught in all grades. 
Story telling and dramatization in the early years anticipate 
the work in written composition, which begins in grade three 
in the form of letter writing and story reproduction. The 
outline for this work in the printed course is most suggestive. 
leaving wide freedom to the teacher, but freedom in the midst 
of rich suggestions as to what ends to seek and what motives 
to provide. Especially is it noticeable and commendable that 
formal grammar is presented only as a means of explaining and 
clarifying oral or written expression. 

The amount of time devoted to the subject varies widely 
in every grade, but on the average increases gradually from 75 
minutes per week for grades one and two, to 255 minutes per 
week for grade eight. Twenty-five per cent more time is given 
to spelling in grade two than is given to language work, and 
in grade three fifty per cent more time, while an. equal amount 
is given the two subjects in grade four. This is obviously so 
unreasonable a distribution of time between these two subjects 
that it should only be necessary to discover that such a dis- 
crepancy exists in order to have it changed. 

Nature and method of the composition test. The test, 
which is explained in the following paragraphs from a circular 
placed in the hands of the teachers, was given in grades four 
to eight inclusive, in the 19 schools selected for the testing 
work. 

COMPOSITION TEST. 

1. Each teacher is requested to ask her children to write a com- 
position for her on the following theme: 

"Suppose that you have twenty dollars, which you have been 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 139 

given to spend. You have five friends, and you decide to spend it in 
such a manner as will give the most pleasure to each. Tell what you 
would do or buy for each friend. The amount spent for each friend 
need not be the same, but the total for the five must be twenty dol- 
lars." 

2. The composition should be written with pen and ink on the 
regular writing paper. 

3. After the children are ready for writing, read the subject to 
them, give them a minute or two to ask any questions, and as soon as 
you are sure that the children understand what they are to do, start 
them at writing. 

4. When the children have finished collect the papers, fasten 
those for each class together with a clip, and send to the office of the 
school principal. 

No teacher marked her own papers, hence the personal 
equation probably entered very slightly into the scoring, which 
was done by the use of the Hillegas scale for measuring the 
quality of English composition.* 



*Hillegas, Milo B. — A Scale for the Measurement of Quality in 
English Composition by Young People. Published by Teachers Col- 
lege, Columbia University, 1912. 



In all there were 3043 compositions written, representing 
a sample of slightly more than 16 per cent of the children in 
the elementary schools of the city. 

The results of the test. The results of this test are shown 
briefly in the following tables and diagram. 

In Table No. 18 a complete distribution of scores attained 
by each of the grades is shown, together with the median score 
attained by each grade. From this table it may be seen that 
the degree of efficiency rises gradually from grade four to 
grade eight. That is, from this test it appears that the aver- 
age child in the Salt Lake City schools, during the course of 
4 years' training in English composition, may be expected to 
gain in efficiency the equivalent of 21^ points on this scale, or 
at the rate of .6 point per year. According to the Butte Sur- 
vey** the progress of a child in that city is at the rate of .45 



**Report of the Survey of the School System of Butte, Montana. 
Published by the Board of Education, 1914. 



140 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



TABLE NO. IS. 



STTOWING DTSTKTRFTIOX OF CO:\rPOSTTION SCORES OR 



RATINGS, BY GRADES. 
(Hillegas Scale.) 



Grade. 


Ratings and Nnniber in Each Grade Making 
Each Rating*. 


N»"* Msdiin 
Sample 







12 3 


4 1 5 6 


7 8 


9 1 


VIII 1 


3 20 44 

17 51 84 

38 89 120 

100 115 140 

136 159 157 


81| 87 92 
165 95 88 
123 106 67 
133| 69 53 
159| 51 43 


82 29 
70 13 
31 8 
21 1 
15 


45 

13 

4 


483 5 4 


VII 


.. .j 1 


597 4 4 


VI 


. . .1 1 


587 3 8 


V 

IV 


. ..' 21 

...1 3 


653 3.1 
723 2.9 











♦The actual values are not 0, 1. 2, 3, 4, etc., but 0, 1S3, 260. 369, 474. 
5S5. 675, 772, S3S, and 937. Full explanation of how these values were 
derived, and of the nature and purpose of the scale are explained by its 
author in Teachers' College Record for September, 1912. 



point on the scale per year. Most of the points in this table 
are broufirht otit more eft'eetively in Figure 18, which shows 
for each grade the percentage of the children who attained 
eacli of the possible scores. 

The achievement for the median child in grade four, and 
that for the median child of grade eight, are indicated by the 
long vertical lines drawn through the entire diagram. Be- 
tween these, at fairly regular intervals, with one exception, 
appear the short vertical lines representing the medians of the 
three intervening grades. This seems to suggest that the com- 
position work is equally well done in all these five grades. 
Closer examination of the exception referred to shows that 
the rate of progress for grade four has been substantially 
higher than that for the other grades. It will be recalled that 
grade four ranked lowest in spelling. If that was because this 
grade was Avorkiug harder on composition, then it is the 
writer's opinion that the schools can well alford to permit the 
spelling scores of all grades to drop from 5 to 10 per cent 
more, especially since more than 25 per cent more time is given 



SCORES: 01 23456 7^9 



MEDIAN SCORES: 
PER CENT. OF PUPILS H IPH 

rZO 



GRADE 33 



GRADE mC 



GRADE 21 



graded: 



GRADE JY 




SCORE: 



g- 9 



FIG. 18. RESULTS OF THE COMPOSITION TEST. 



142 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

to spelling" than is desirable. Pavtieiilarly iu the language 
work of the early grades eoiild this time be used to far better 
advantage. 

Children well classified for language work. By this dia- 
gram attention is also ealled to the wide variety of abilities 
found in eaeh grade. This was found to be eharaeteristie also 
of individual eiasses. and presents the same teaehing diftieulties 
as were pointed out above in connection with spelling. How 
to assign a lesson, or how to discuss sentence or paragraph 
formation, or the details of letter writing, with a class con- 
taining children as widely apart in ability as are those repre- 
sented by the outer ends of the dift'erent sections of this dia- 
gram, would be difficult to state. In fact it cannot be done 
without losing time for some members of the class. 

The diagram shows that there are nearly S per cent, almost 
60 children of the fourth grade, whose composition scored 
higher than that written by the average child in grade eight. 
It is not merely unfair to these 60 children, but unfair to the 
city's future citizenship, to say nothing of the money cost 
involved, that these 60 children, who probably represent the 
real future leadership of the city, should not be promoted to 
where full, not half opportunity, will be given them iu this 
subject. 

Samples of averag-e composition. In order that the reader 
may judge for himself of the quality of work the schools are 
doing in composition, the children's papers from the different 
schools have been looked over and those papei-s from eaeh 
grade which received the score nearest the median (approxi- 
mately the average) for the grade have been sorted out. 
From these the following compositions have been selected as 
typical illustrations, not of the best or the poorest, but of 
the average compositions from each grade tested. They are 
presented here exactly as written, spelled, and punctuated in 
the original, except that proper names have been omitted. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 143 

NO. 1. GRADE 4B, SCORE 2.60 (WRITTEN BY A GIRL AGE 11 
YEARS, 9 MONTHS). 

On Christmas my uncle came on a visit. He gave me twenty dol- 
lars to spent. I planed what I could do to make some one happy. 
While I was thinking I thought of some poor people. 

Which had five children. So that I could see what they needed 
most. I went and played with them. After I saw what they needed 
I went home. And with some of my friends I went up town. And 
bought five pairs of shoes for eleven dollars, five dresses for six 
dollars, two loaves of bread for twenty cents, and five pairs of stock- 
ings one dollar and ten cents five gloves for one dollar and seventy 
cents. So not I was the only one happy but they were also happy 
and glad. 

NO. 2. GRADE 5B, SCORE 3.69 (WRITTEN BY A GIRL AGE 11 
YEARS, 7 MONTHS). 

The other day as I was playing in the yard, I spied something in 
the grass which looked like a penny. But when I came near it was 
much larger and heavier. 

The next day I called five of my friends in, M — , D — , B — , A — ■, 
and H — . I told them to get ready, and we would go to Lagoon. 

At last we were ready and now we are on our way. The train 
stops and we get of ready to give the rest of our ticket to the door 
tender. I have spent two dollars already, but now I am going take 
them on the chutes and next the cenick railway. We must not 
forget the boats and the little train and merry-go-round. 

After that comes the lunch, for we did not bring any. 

After that we must all play some kind of a game, and win 
a little poodle dog. Next the doll game which all of us will play 
for. The fishing game is the game that you play for jewelry. I 
bought a vase which cost six dollars, and that was the prize for the 
one who got the most peanuts after they were hiden. We have 
($5.40) five dollars and forty cents left for which will by ($.40) worth 
of nuts and the rest will be for carfare home. 

NO. 3. GRADE 6 B, SCORE 3.69 (WRITTEN BY A BOY, AGE 12 
YEARS AND 9 MONTHS). 

I have friends who live in the country. Their names are P — 

C— , C— C , F— C— , R— C , and M— C . They had 

never visited t-he city One summer I was out there. I allways piled 
with questions about the city. One day I asked them how they would 
like to go back with me and see the city. They were so delighted 



IH SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

that they could not keep still. In P — *s delightment he ran into the 
cow which politely lifted in the air an set him on top of the hay 
stack. The next day we started for the city about noon and we 
reached it. The minute we were off the train they began pointing to 
sky scraper and crying excitedly. Oh isn't it a tall one. F — said he 
sposed it reached to heaven. While C — was looking at one of the 
tall buildings he ran into a man. We went into a resteront a had a 
good dinner which costs us two dollars apiece. After the dinner we 
went to the show which was one dollar. M — wanted to know what 
made the trolley cars go. We went for a ride, we rode about five 
miles. It cost me one dollar for the ride. When we got ready to 
go home we got on the cars and found out that I couldn't find my 
pocket book. We walked all the way home. We got home I found 
the pocket book in my hat R — had put it there. I gave the four 
dollars for their home. They said they hadent a better time. 

NO. 4. GRADE 7B. SCORE 4.74 (WRITTEN BY A BOY. AGE 14 
YEARS, 3 MONTHS) 

One sunny n\orning in May my five cousins who where on their 
way to see the fair at Frisco stopped on their way and came to see 
me. My father gave me twenty dollars to intertain them. I was 
busy thinking of the best way to do it. I finally decided to go to 
the Bingham Copper Mines. This was satisfactory to all and tak- 
ing along a hmch we started off. 

When we got there it was noon and everybody was hungry so 
we opened up the lunch and ate until there was not a crumb left. 
Next we hired a guide to show us through the mines and what a 
sight we seen. There were walls of dirt seemingly covered with the 
yellow mettle. Our guid showed us where the elevators were on 
which they sent the copper to the top. Next he showed us the don- 
keys which hauled the little dump cart to the elevators. After 
taking us trough all the mines he showed us where the minors 
lived. 

Here our journey ended after each buying a souvenir we de- 
parted for home each one satisfied with the way of spending twenty 
dollars. 

NO. 5. GRADE 8B. SCORE 5.S5 (WRITTEN BY A BOY. AGE '?) 
DEAR J—. 

Two days ago uncle gave me twenty dollars, to get Christmas 
presents with. I was on my way down town, to get them, when I 
saw two ragged little boys. I stopped and said, to them. "Well 
Johnny what are you going to get for Christmas." 

•'I aint going to get nothing this Christmas, for mamma hasn't 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



145 



got any money. Where do you live, "Across the street in that 
wooden house," answered the boy. 

You take this five dollars over to your mamma and then hurry 
back and I will take you up town. So I took them up town, and 
got them some warm clothes and then took them to a show. So 
I spent fifteen dollars on three of them. There was Mother and 
Father left so I got father a shaving set which cost three dollars and 
a half and I got Mother some Handkerchiefs for a dollar and a half 
which took all my money. Merry Christmas. 
Your old friend, 

H . 

On the formal, side there are plenty of errors in these 
papers, in spelling, in punctuation, in sentence formation, etc., 
and one or two seem rather formal and dry. But in most of 
them there is evidence of some play of the imagination, and 
fairly free expression. Most of the vocabularies seem ade- 
quate, and in such details these samples seem to indicate 
that the composition work is fairly well taught. It must be 
remembered that these are but average compositions, and not 
compositions selected because oif their special merit. 

Salt L£uke City's Composition! w^ork. There is but little 
data which can be offered for comparison, ^but such as is 
available is presented in Table No. 19. From this it is seen 



TABLE NO. 19. 
COMPARING SALT LAKE 'CITY'S MEDIAN COMPOSI- 
TION SCORES WITH THOSE ATTAINED IN 
OTHER STATES. 



Grade 


Score 


Median 

Butte, 
Mont.* 










SaltLake 
City 


Maryland, 

& N. Y.City*" 


Oeleware 

Co. O.*** 


Delaware 
City. 


VIII 

VII 


5.4 1 

4.4 

3.8 

3.1 

2.9 


4.11 
3.75 
3.40 
2.87 
2.34 


3.94 

5.75 to 7.0 

5.15 


5.27 . 


VI 




V 




IV 













*The Butte Survey, p. 74. 

*. **rF\ -l-. ^elly. Teacher.s' Marks, Their Variability and ,Standardiz£ 
tion. Col. Univ. 1914. 

♦♦•Report of the Ohio State School Survey, 1914. 



14(5 SCHOOL Sl'UVFA' KEVOKT. 

that in ovory g-rado Salt Lako City ranks ayoU above Butte, 
above the eiiiluh grade rural schools of Dela^Yare Co., Ohio, 
and above tlu> eiirlith grade elnUh'en of DelaAvare City. Ohio, 
but below the classes in Maryland and N. Y. City. 

Conclusions and recommendations. It should be ^aid 
then in conchision : 

1st. That while the schools rank fairly well as compared 
in Table >so. lt\. yet the fact that some classes in N. Y. City 
have nuide higrhcr scores indicates that there is yet room for 
improvement. There were individual classes in Salt Lake 
City which ranked as high as the N. Y. City classes, which 
shows that higher standards than are shown by the table 
have already been attained by some schools in the city. 

2nd. That the fonrth grade which ranked low in spell- 
ing is doing superior Avork in composition, and that other- 
wise the progress has been abont equal in the other grades, 
which indicates that there is in general a common standard 
for pi\Mnotion in English work thronghont the city. 

ord. That there is ample evidence that classes are not 
well graded, when so large a number of foni-th grade chil- 
dren are doing work eqiial to that of the average eighth grade 
pnpils, and when nearly an equal number of eighth grade 
pupils rank below the average fourth grade pupil. 

4th. From the oompositions written tlicre is ample evi- 
dence that the excellent aims for English work, as set forth 
in the printed course of study, are being achieved, and that 
many of the common errors of teaching the formal and techni- 
cal aspects of English work are being successfully avoided. 

5th. It is recommended that a portion of the time now 
devoted to formal spelling drill be given over, in the early 
gi-ades, to the broader work in English, and that by the use 
of ungraded rooms, smaller classes, and more elastic methods 
of promotion, the very bright and the very dull j>upils be 
given more adequate attention than is either possible or 
economical under the present dassifieation. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 147 

3. THE WRITING TEST. 

Writing in the school curriculum. AVriting is taught in 
all grades, beginning with free arm work at the blackboard, 
gradually taking up the pencil, and in the third grade the 
pen. During the first two years an average of 50 minutes 
per week, and through the other grades an average of 7'5 
minutes per week is given to the subject, which is slightly 
less than has recently been found to be the average for 66 
American cities.* The aim for teaching writing appears to 
be that of legibility rather than mere beauty, and the instruc- 
tions in the printed course of study lay appropriate emphasis 
upon the hygienic aspect of the teaching of the subject. 

How the writing" was measured. The test was gi^en 
to the same classes and schools as were tested for spelling, 
including about 20 per cent of the children in the elementary 
schools of the city. For this test each child was provided 
with a blank sheet of unruled writing paper, at the top of 
which was printed the following brief instructions and para- 
graph, as shown here : 

WRITE THE FOLLOWING AS WELL AS YOU CAN AT YOUR 

USUAL SPEED. DO NOT WRITE SLOWLY, AND DO NOT 

HURRY BUT WRITE JUST AS YOU WOULD 

WRITE A LESSON. 

After this the squirrels used to come in every day, and when she 
put corn in her hand and held it very still, they would eat out of 
it. Finally they would get into her hand, until one day she gently 
closed it over them so that Frisky and Titbit were fairly caught. 
Oh, how their hearts beat! But the good fairy only spoke gently 
to them, and soon opened her hand and let them go again. 

These were given to the children hy their teachers just 
as a class exercise, and when finished the papers for each 
class were turned over to the principal, who forwarded them 
to the principal of another school across the city, whose teach- 
ers scored the papers by use of the Thorndike scale for mea- 
suring handwriting.* 

Results by schools and by grades. The results of this 



*Freeman, Frank N., in the Fourteenth Year Book of the National 
Societj' for the Study of Education, Part I. Chicag-o Univ. Press. 



-148 



<!rUiHM. SIKVKY KKPOKT 



tost aro shown in liotail by solu>ols and by irrailos in tho fol- 
UnviniT tables ami diajrranis, Tho scoring is dono. aooovding 
tv> tho soaU\ vm tho basis of 4 to IS. instoad of from to 100. 
Tlio roason for tl\is is itunialorial. bnt should bo inulorsiood in 
ordor 10 intorprot tho foUowiuij tabb^s. Konioniboriuir that 4 
moans praotioally 0. and that IS n\oans approxiniatoly 100. 
tlio roador will roadily undorsiand 'Pablo No. "JO. whioh pro- 
soi\ts tho avorajjo sooros by sohools and by jrrados, and thou 
oombiuos ihoso for tho ovty as a wliolo. .\ oaroful study of 
this tablo shows that, judirovl by irrado avorajros. tio ono sohool 
vaiiksi ospooially low or ospooially hijrh. though tho Siunuor 
ivooni is oousistontly above tho average for the oity. In other 
words, the differeuoes botweeu sohools are nowhere strikiuar, 
and tho gradual ris<* of the average seore from 9.3 in grade 
thivo. to l.'vl in grade eight shows ovidonoo of uniforniiiy in 



TAIU.K NO. IV. 

PlSTKllUriON OK .WF.K.VOK SOOKKS IN rKNM.VNSHir 

BY SOHOOl.S .VNO KY OKAOKS. 

O.U.VPK 

For the City 

Viti\oi-i50n Sohool 

Oraiu Sohool i 

lla.miUon Sohool . , , ' 

Jackson Sohool 

JoftVi'^on Sohool j 

l^fayoilo Sohool ! 

lanoolt\ Sohool \ 

Low oil Sohool 

OUOQVl.«» SohvH^l 

OQUirrh Sohool ^ . . . | 

Poplsr Giwo Sohool 

Rivorsido Sohool 

Sxniinor SohiX^l 

Trainius SohiH>l ' 

Wasatch School 

Washington School 

Webster SchiH>l 

Whittier School ! 



Ill 


IV 1 


V 1 


VI 


VII 1 


VIII 


9.S 


10.7 I 


10.9 1 


11.2 


12.1 


13.1 


9.6 


9.S 1 


12.5 


10.9 


12.4 


U.S 


9.S 


10.4 


10.2 


9.9 


11.9 


IS. 2 


8.2 


10.1 


10.9 1 


10.9 


10.4 




11,9 


10.1 


11.5 1 


12.9 


12.5 




10.7 


10.7 


9.9 I 


:o.5 


11.4 


IS. 




9.5 1 


11. S ! 


11.5 1 


ll.S 


11.6 


10.5 


11. S 1 


10.6 


10. S ' 


12.2 


14.7 


9.0 


9.2 i 


9.0 ! 


11. 1 


11.2 




S.6 


10.6 ! 


11.7 ; 


11.8 


14. 


14.6 


10.5 


11.6 


10.9 


9.9 


12.2 


IS. 5 


S.7 


10.7 


12 2 ' 


IS.S 


12.1 






9.5 


9.S 


ll.S 


11.6 


:2.4 


9.4 


12.7 1 


9.8 i 


11. 


12. 


12.2 


10.2 


1S.8 


12.4 


12.2 


12.7 


IS. 9 


7.1 


9.0 1 


9.8 ! 


9.6 


11.6 


12.5 




12.7 


IS. 4 


ll.S 1 12.4 


12. S 


S.9 


9,7 


9.5 ' 


10.7 


11.2 




7.$ 


11.1 1 


10.7 


12.1 


12. S 


11.6 


9.1 


U.T 1 


11.4 1 


12.0 


12.8 


14.7 



•Thv^rndtktN K<i\v»r<i T.. A Scale for Handwriting? of ChiUlren In 
Gt-aci^'S 5 to S. tniblishtHi by Ti'^Aohers; OoUos>\ Col. Univ.. X. Y, For full 
<>xi>lanation of hv>w th<? stoait^ wt** dor'.vod see Teachers OoJlejre Record. 
Matvh, tJIO. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED, 



]i\i 



\i'i\v]i'\\\{X sl;in(l;tr(ls 1 liiMxij^'lioiit llic city. Since Iticcc is lilllc 
Jill il'oniiity willi fcspccj, to tlic ;un(Hjiil. ol' time ;issi}4n<'<| lo jliis 
.siil)j(!(;t in 11m! (liCCcrcnl schools, il. is of ijitcr'cst Id shifc tlnit, Uk; 
school which inn]<<'s \\\r. h)wost wtandififif in the Icsl is dcvolin^i' 
nearly onc-thir'd less than the averaf^'O amount oi' time to the 
.subject. A j)leas;inl, and profitable diversion I'or- e;icli jjrineipal, 
would be the fij^urjnj^ out of the actual timci-cost of his seliool 's 
;iclii('vcrn('nt. \)(w niiit .'itlainful on th(; S(!;i,lc. 

Variability among individuals in the same grade. Aver- 
ages are important, bnt do jiot tell the complete st.ory, ;it;d 
the reader is I'cl'eii'cd to Table N'o. 21, which shows the eji- 

TAliLK NO. 21. 
THE j:)ISTI,'lP.irri()j\ of S(!()1IKS on :'A)Hr) Sy\.\ll'LKS OK 

pknjmansiih' uy grades. 



Score 










1 






9 






') 






4 




3 






4 


r; 




21 


7 




55 


S 




8.5 


<^ 




196 


Id 




46 


n 




102 


1? 




44 


^?, 




39 


14 




11 


If) 




4 


If; 




4 


17 






IS 













No. 


of Samples^ ., 


616 



GRADES, number niakini;^ Hcore, 
111 I FV I V I VT i VII I Vill 



30 
63 



59 



Median Score for Grade | 9.2 



175 


147 


37 


23 


1 152 


190 


60 


65 


101 


98 


38 


41 


12 


15 


9 


4 


4 


1 


1 




~687~ 


~646 


10.7 


11.0 



3 







2 


26 


8 


117 


70 


38 


12 


:53 


163 


92 


91 


87 


189 


52 


68 


20 


3: 


10 


24 




2 


1 


2 


602 


662 



11.3 I 12.2 



28 

4 

97 

81 

84 

50 

35 

61 

10 

22 

~472 

12.8 



tii'e distribnt ion of the scores attained by the ehihhen oT e;ich 
e'l'ade, the nundxT of sajtiples included, and thi' rank' oT the 
median Sfnnple. These facts are bi-oiij^'ht out idcju'ly in P'iti- 
ure 19, which shows the same wide Nariation from the a\'er- 
age, so api)arent in the spelling and lan<^uage results. The 
two verti<'al doited lines enclose the records of all the chil- 



T."H> 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



(Iron who si'orod botu oou S ami 17. thus showiiii,' fht- exteti- 
sive t>\ orhippiutr botwoon ixrades widoly apart. 




seM£^: I 2 3 4 J 6 7 r '3 /O 1112 /3 U 15 I6>17 /f 
Fh^, l:>. SHOAVlXt^ THE PEKCEXTAGK OF CHILDREN 
WHO ATTAIXEP EACH OF THE P0SS51RLE SCORES. 
iThorndike Scale. 



Sinoe the iiistnietion in writing is an individual rather 
than a group proeodniv. elassitieation of children on the basis 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. l.'l 

oi' this subject is not at all inipoi'taiil. I>iit tcadiors will no) 
need to study this diagram long to discovei- that thc-ic :ir( 
<|uite a number of third grade chihlren in the schools who 
wen now are ready for the eighth grade writing (;lass<'s; or, 
vice versa, that there are many children now in the eighth 
grade who write no better than the better writers in grade 
three. Assuming that all have had approximately similar 
training, as far as they have gone, we may reasonably con- 
elude that these differences are largely due to ditferences in 
the .native abilities of individual children. 

However true this may be, the results of the test cm- 
phasize the importance of making provision for these difit'er- 
ences by furthei- individualizing the instructi()n. and by pro- 
viding special treatment foi- the few who do not understand 
and do not impro^'e under ordinary methods. This is as eco- 
nomical as it is wise from the children's standpoint. Still fui-- 
ther, if third, fourth and fifth grade children can now ^vrite as 
well or better than is expected of the average eighth grade pu- 
pil, then it is entirely wrong to have such children spending 75 
minutes per week on this subject. Such children should be 
excused from formal work in writing, with the understand- 
ing that so long as their written work shows a certain quality 
this extra time may be used on other studies. Such methods 
of saving time are commendable because they stimulate those 
children to do their best 'SNdio might otherwise merely drift, 
for the reason that it is no trouble for them to keep ahead of 
their classes. 

Comparison with other cities. To compare the residts 
of this test in Salt Lake City with those achieved elsewhere, 
comparable data from several sources have been brought to- 
gether in Table No. 22. 

Here the median, which differs very slightly from the 
average, has been used, and it will be seen that the 
schools of Salt Lake City rank high in two respects. 
First, with the exception of a few cases in the seven school 
svstems tested bv Dr. Stone, no schools cited rank as high : 



152 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



TABLE NO. -22. 

aiOWlNG THE COMPARATIVE STANDING OF THE SALT 

l..\KF CITY SCHOOLS IN rEN:\LVNSTnP. AS JUDGED 

BY THE MKDLVN SCOKE FOR EACH GRADE. 

(^Thomdike Scale.) 



City 




GRADE, 


and 


Median 


Score 






11 


III 


IV 


V 




VI 


VII 


VllI 


Butte 1 


8.2 


8.0 

10.3 


8.8 
10.0 


8- 
10. 


9 
3 


11.6 
11.7 


i 11.2 
1 11.7 


12'. 1 


Corner:>vine, Ind, 2 


11.0 


Soiithinston. Conn. 3.. 


( 












i 10.0 
10.3 
11.1 
10.6 


10.3 
11.2 
11.0 


j^ovon School S>:?toms 4 


\ 












11.3 
12.7 
13.0 
13.0 


11.7 
11.6 
13.7 
14.0 


Salt Lake City 




9.2 


10.7 


11 


1 


11.3 


i 12.2 


12.8 



1. Butte School Sxirvey, Chap, IV. 

2. Wilson — Writing of school children: in Elem. Soh. Tr.. June. 
liUl (1,200 children') . 

3. Witham — All the Elements of Handvrriting measured: Educl. 
Admin, and Supv,. May. 1915. 

4. Stone — Quoted by Thorndike. Investigation covers seven 
school systems and about 3.000 children. Trs.. Col. Record. March. 
1910. 

and seooiid. boi-aiiso tho progress from grrade to grade is much 
more even hi the Salt Lake City schools than in uwst of the 
other cases. In time it Avill be possible to standardize the 
matter of pivgress from grad*.^ to grade. Iiitil then it is fair 
ro assume that a reasonably even rate of progress is more 
nearly normal than is an uneven rate. 

How well the average child can write. As ;u the case 
of tlie i-ompositions there is presented here, in Figure 20, a 
sample specimen of the writing from the papers in each grade 
whicli received a mark approximately that of the gi*ade 
median. 

Selection on the basis of the median means that there 
are as many children in these grades in Salt Lake City who 
can write better than the specimens shown in Figure 20 as 
tb.ere are who cannot write so well. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 153 



SRAOE HL 






GRADE TV 






6RADE X 







GRADE 3n 






GRADE 2ni 

FIG. 20. SAMPLE REPRESENTING THE MEDIAN 
ACHIEVEMENT IN WRITING IN EACH GRADE. 

(Reduced y^ in size.) 
It can be said that these samples fairly represent the kind 
of writing which is now being done by the average children 
of each grade in the city. That is, there are as many children 
in the city who can write better than these samples (grade 
one and two omitted) as there are children who cannot write 
as well. The average business man will do well to place his 



154 SCHOOL SVKVEY REPORT 

own writiuir by tl\o side of either of the last two of these 
speeimeiis before ai'^viiii^ that the children of the piiblie 
schools cannot write. It is trne that some of the writing 
Avas done \Yith a cramped hand, and that it is somewhat 
childisli looking, bnt it must be added that it is easily legible 
and that legibility is the iinal test which the Avorld puts upon 
Avriling. 

Ne^-dtd changes in instruction. In conclusion we must 
say that the writing work in the schools of this city is well 
np to the standard: that in the light of present practice 
this AYork is being accomplished in a resonable amount of 
time; and that the basis for piH>motion in the different schools 
appeal's to be equal, bnt that more careful individualization 
of instruction for the lower tive to ten per cent of each grade, 
and the temporary relieving from formal training of those who 
are several points ahead of their grades, are lines along which 
the schools may look for even greater progress. 

A THK TEST IX READING. 

Reading' in the course of study. Almost every classroom 
visited by the membei's of the survey showed evidence that 
the point of view, the aim and purpose, and the general 
method for teaching reading, so clearly set forth in the print- 
ed course of study, are being effectively carried out. The 
time allotment, which varies from 50 to more than 900 minutes 
per week between classes in the city, with an average of from 
200 to 375 minutes per week in the different grades: and the 
constant attention to home as well as school reading, which 
one finds in every classroom: give evidence that the schools 
of the city have not underestimated the importance of this 
subject, nor the fact that teaching children how to read is 
but incidental in teaching them to read. Speed, getting the 
meaning, rememberirg the language used. — ^that is, develop- 
ing vocabulary, — and that clear expression which is evidence 
of appreciation, all are ends to be sought in teaching read- 
ing. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 155 

How the reading was tested. To provide a test by which 
we may be able to make a quantitative statement of the de- 
gree of efficiency attained by a given child or class in all 
these features, is in large part the work of the future. A 
simple test of speed and of accuracy of memory for words 
used has been devised, and this was applied in thirteen schools, 

The test, which is printed on pages 156 and 157, and which 
is known as the Courtis test, consist of a simple prose story 
which the children were asked to read silently, with as great 
speed and with as great care as possible. They were told that 
they would be permitted to read a certain length of time, after 
which they would be tested to see what they knew of the 
part they had read. Exactly one minute was given, at the 
end of which each child drew a ring around the last word 
he had read. By use of the figures on the margin the num- 
ber of words read in one minute (the child's speed) was 
quickly ascertained and recorded in the square at the upper 
left hand corner of what was called Test No. 1. 

In Test No. 2 no time limit was enforced. In this test 
the same story is used, but instead of the subject being "'■'Bes- 
sie's Adventures," we have "Bessie's (Experiences, Adentures. 
Story." This same idea is carried out throughout the body of 
the story, and the test, which is a test of memory for words 
used, consists in checking the one of these three words (three 
words always appear in italics enclosed in parentheses) which 
the pupil remembers as the word he read in Test No. 1. These 
puzzles, or points, as they were termed in the explanation to the 
children, are numbered on the margin, as were the words in 
Test No. 1. "When the child had checked the words down as 
far as he had read the story in Test No. 1, he drew a lice 
around the last word, and. with assistance, recorded in the 
proper place the number of points he had read. The papers 
were then taken by the teacher, who verified the count made 
by the children and assembled the scores for her class on a 
record sheet designed for that purpose. 



1^ SOHOO\ ^IKVF\ \xKrOUT 

KXOiaSU NOKMAl. KKAlMNiV 

B«««i»'$ v^viv(fntur<r*. Experiences, Story). 



SCORE 
Number of 

Words 



No. ot 

lVfva>t> »ho tVist^toxx^Nj MttU> ^irl could «J«xude whst lo do, the do^ sat up IS 

Ott hi* hUxd l«i^^ !snd lH^;*» to b«?^. H«;> s«\o another mvpatic^ut Uitlo "Bow!."* S2 

but th\* v««e hi?i MrK dul not *tvn\ $o s^tiaiv* awd territVuA^ to Bt^^sie, aad 47 

ht^r tVax-:* h^^^n to dt^ainn^r, '^Wlxy. ho's^ rxiNnlly a e«to little do^ie."* she! 60 

thott^ht^ aixd sitting tUV =!**i* timidly offered htxtx her K^wl, The do^ ne^ed TS 

tto sec\>ttd iuviiatxoix, httt e^A^erly lapj^ed the wtillv xmtil every drv>p wa* §xme, S<5 

I 
Bessie set the en\j>ty bowl dovrm t^¥>n the doorstep and patteiJ the little \ S$ 
dv^^s he<*d. He is tun\ was e^ivxally tYiendly. vrajti^Uxsi his tail and tryiiii: to IIS 
lieis. her haad. In a tew nxinxttes TOorr> the two wer>? the best of tYiends, 12S 
raei^x^i about the jjarv^en in a wild ^^n\e of ta^. ^xmetitxies it was Bessie, 143 
lati^hnt^ and serxNsttxxt^. whv> was cha^in,* the do^ this wa>- aixd that in and I$i5 
Ottt anxoiixs^ the bxtshe<s of the ^^rvien: souietiraes it was the do^. bari^ing and 170 
jrttnijxinst, who was ohastu^ Bessie, More than oixce do$: and girl were sv-> 1$S 
xnneh ii\ each other>s waj that both fell down, rvxllin^ o\er and over on the IS>S 
soft stas*. Not for a lv>n^ time had Be^ssie had sueh a pleasant playmate, 212 

They wx>re on the t>v«xt lawn now. ressting a minute aftwr a pwrtieularty 225« 
wild ronuv !?wddexxl>. thrvu^h the pieXets of the fene^. the do^ spie<a a cat "2$8» 

erx>ssi;tx^ the strxvt 05ats.ide, Inxtnediately he dasheil after her. saueeaing 249 

between the pieXets. and ninning down the strv^^t at top spe^xJ, '^Her^. 261 

d<i^5ti"t\ do^ie.^ the little girl erievt. and ran after her playfellow, oa>ly to be 27S 

stopiH>J by ?he fenw, Ftotn betwe^^n the pickets, she could se^ both the c«t 2S$ 

and the dos rapidly disappearing dv>wn the str>er>t. Hot tears of disas^ SOO 

pointment w->i;»ei;* from her eye^ ^e hurrieii te> the gate and shook it: it S14 

wa* secu^\ xi. Could she open itt Many timers Ktore had she S25 

tried.. b*« .,ccr^^ Little girls grow, howover. and sta-,d:n^ on the $S7 

K>wear tCv and stretching tv> her utmost, she was past able to §5S 

poross ;rs against the latch. Click, and the gate swung open. StW 

Bessie v^.^s -,ve ,.^ hurry down the stre«et. Tho c«t and do§t had disa]?- 57^ 

pe«r^ around the c\>mer of the next block. SSS 

Xi'^.e C;rad<? 



'iiii'; iNS'i i{i:<;'iioN mkaslim'M). i.^t 



KNfJIJSlI. N0KA1AJ. KIOAI)IX(;. 
TKS^r XO. 2. AUOMOKY TKST. 



BCOftK. 

rhnr; 

No. Lof( 

n'o, K.i;.:hit 



Bessie's (Experiences, Adventures, Story,) Part B. J 

JJt'foic III*; (\.('.thi\(-(l, i't'mhliiH<-4, poor) JitUf; f(irl coiihl (docidf;, (.hlnk, :i 

know) what, lo do, f.ho (Jo« Hal. up on hJH hind Jc^h and bfj^an f.o (bark, toaBO, 4 

bog.) Jl<! KHVO anot.b«;r inipat.if^nt. liUJr; ("Jiow!", bark, wbinf;j but, f.hJH tirno 5 

hlH bark did nol, H<;<;jn ho (loud, Kbarp, barnh) and t.orrjfying to iJoHHJfj, and 6 

her (foarK, U;rror, diHt.roHH) hc^an to dJHapp<:ar. "Why, ho'H roaJly a (nico, 7 

cuto, df-arj Jiftio doKxio," nho thought., and Hit.t.jng up, Kho (cautJounly, 

timidly, boldly J oiTf;r<;d him h<;r bow]. Thr- dog (want.f;d, im\<(-A, ncj-AcA) 10 

no Hocond invit.at.ion, but. (r-ag<!r)y, rjujckiy, rax>idly) lappod tho xriilk until 11 

every drop wan (k wallowed, eaten, gone.; 12 

UeHKle net th<; empty bowl down upon thf; (graHH, doorHtep, ground) and I'i 

patted the little dog'H (head, back, neek.) He in turn waH (very, alHO, 15 

equally) friendly, wagging hiK tail and trying to (paw, kinH, lick) her hand. 16 

In a few minutcH more the two were the beHt of (cornradcK, friendn, play- 17 

niateH) racing about the (grounds, lawn, garden) in a wild game of tag. 18 

SometimeK it wan iieHBie, laughing and fKcreaming, dancing, Hkipping) who 19 

waH chasing the dog this way and that in and out among the H.reeH, buHhen, 20 
benchcH) of the garden; Hometimen it wan the dog, barking and fHquealing 

jumping, biting) who was chasing lieKKie. More than once dog and girl 21 

were ho much in each other's way that (they, both, each) fell down, rolling 22 

over and over on the (soft, green, cool) grass. Not for a long time had 23 

Bessie had such a pleasant fgarne, frolic, playmate.) 24 

They were on the (front, side, back) lawn now, resting a minute after 25 

a particularly wild (race, ganje, romp.) Suddenly, through the pickets of 26 

the fence, the dog (noticed, saw, spied) a cat crossing the street outside. 27 

Imniediatr;ly he (ran, dashed, chased) after her, squeezing between the 28 

pickets, and running down the street at (top, high, great) speed. "Here, 29 

doggie, doggie," the little girl cried, and ran after her (friend, playfellow, 30 
companion) only to be stopped by the fence. From between the (pickets 

posts, palings) she could see both the cat and the dog (gradually, rapidly, 32 

slowly) disappearing down the street. Hot tears of (anger, grief, disappoint- 33 

ment) welled from her eyes. She (hurried, ran, went) to the gate and 34 

shook it; it was (safely, firmly, securely) latched. Could she open it? Many 35 

times (before, yesterday, halfheartedly) she had tried, but without success. 36 

Little girls grow, however, and (resting, standing, stepping) on the lower 37 

part of the gate, and (reaching, stretching, pushing) to her utmost, she was 38 

just able to (press, push, touch) her little fingers against the latch. Click 39 

and the gate (came, was, swung) open. Bessie was (free, able, quick) to 41 

hurry down the street. The cat and dog had disappeared around the comer I 

of the next (street, block, square.) 42 



loS 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



AVhile the children ay ere reading Test No. 1, they did not 
know Avhnt sort of tost was to t'oHow. The two pages wore print- 
ed together on one sheet, hut in sueh a manner that when read- 
ing one the other was upside down. They only knew that they 
would he tested on what they had read. This would naturally 
have the effeet of retarding their natural normal speed in 
reading, and the results of Test No. 1 are therefore more 
nearly eomparahle with the tentative standard whieh the auth- 
or of the test has defined for ''careful reading." This com- 
hination of the two tests seemed to more nearly meet the needs 
of the situation, in view of the fact that two members of the 
survey staff were to devote some time to hearing reading 
recitations, to a study of reading texts and coui-ses of study. 
and to methods and devices in use. 

Results of the test. The results of these tests are shown 
in the following tables and diagrams, and the reader is at 
liberty to try his own rate of reading the selection presented 



TABLE NO. 23. 
SHOAVINOt THE NUMBEE OF AYOKDS BEAD PER MIN- 
UTE BY THE :\IEDIAN CHILD IN EACH CLASS TESTED. 

(Courtis Test^ 



SCHOOL 



GRADE 



I vni ; 

Forest TT7|~213~i 

Grant I f 

Hamilton v I 

Lafayette i 199 

Lincoln | i 

LoAYoU I 210 ! 

Onequa i 190 ! 

Oquirrh . . . '. ' 190 ' 



Riverside 
Sumner . . 
Trainina 
Wasatch . 
Whittier . 



199 
14S 
217 i 

287 I 
239 ! 



vn 

~230~ 
219 
225 
230 
219 
293 
199 
213 
226 
219 
17S 
215 
207 



YI_! 
206 I 
223 i 

219 I 
222 I 
213 i 

220 I 
173 I 
210 I 
206 
199 
205 ' 
246 ' 
239 ' 



224 
214 
"159 
179 
159 
203 
239 
203 
214 
159 
202 
167 
190 



*The rate of silent reading shown here was attained by the chil- 
dren, nnderstanding. that they ^^ ere later to bo tested on the content 
of what they read. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 159 

above, in comparison with the results here shown for 1,624 
children in thirteen schools, from grades five to eight inclu- 
sive. 

Table No. 23 shows the median number of words read in 
one minute by the children oif each grade and school tested. 
The range between classes is from 148 to 287 words in grade 
eight, from 178 to 293 in grade seven from 173 to 246 in grade 
six, and from 159 to 239 in grade five. The differences be- 
tween schools as a whole are not specially marked. Whether 
a foreign language in the home increases the difficulties of 
learning to read English is perhaps a fair question. Some 
schools have no children from such homes, Mobile others have a 
high percentage of such. Other factors, such as a large per- 
centage of children from homes with no facilities for stimulat- 
ing intellectual ideals, etc., probably tend to make slight dif- 
ferences hetween community or school records in a reading 
test, for very many children learn more reading at home than 
they learn at school. 

Variation between individuals. The variation between in- 
dividuals, however, is extreme, as shown by Table No. 24, 
which presents a complete distribution of the individual scores 
by grades. This table also shows the median s^core for each 
grade, and the tentative standard which Mr. Courtis, the author 
of the tests, has established. 

Speed in reading would to some extent depend upon qual- 
ity of vision. If, as is shown in Chapter XI of this report, 
15 per cent of the children have defective vision, we could 
expect the extreme cases from that group to produce some low 
scores. As an illustration of the wide difference in ability to 
read rapidly, which was found to exist between children in 
the same class, the records from four rooms are shown in 
Table No. 25. 

Knowing what we do of children's reaction time, it is not 
surprising to find these differences. It is important, however, 
that they should be clearly set forth here for the reason that 
these very differences are the basis of important problems in 



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THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



161 



method, promotion and grading, amount of roading to assign, 
etc. Referring to this table again, let ns ask what the upper 
ten children do while the lower ten are reading aloud in class. 
This is concretely what is meant 'by the statenu'nt that these 
differences constitute important teaching and organization 
problems. Just as it is good method for a teacher to demon- 
strate good reading to her class, so it is good to relieve the 
brighter children of the necessity of droning over a passage 
in the lesson while some extremely poor reader is struggling 
through it word by word. , If these ten children can show 
equally well in expression and getting the meaning out of 
what they read, they should recite reading in some higher 
grade, for they certainly do not have to study where they 
are. 

The speed test. Reference to Table No. 24 with these 
points in mind, and a study of Figure 21 will make it plain, 



GRADE 




GRADE Yir 




FIG. 21. 



•s * I a 2 5 ^ 

READING- SPEEDIEST. 

STIOWTNa THE DISTRIBUTION OP SCORES IN 
THE SPEED READING TESTS. 



16: 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



that, so iar as speed is eoneenied, one could not judge in 
which grade any single child's score might appear. It will be 
seen that there are only seven children in grade five whose scores 
are below the lowest score in grade eight, and there are no 
scores in grade eight which are above the best live in grade 
five, and by the diagram it appears that all children, irrespec- 
tive of grade, average somewhere near 200 words per minute as 
their rate for rather careful reading. 

Salt Lake City compared. As compared with the Courtis 
standard (see Table 24) all grades rank high. The surprise is 
that grade eight ranks between grade five and six. For com- 
parative purposes Figure 22 is introduced, which indicates the 

WORDS PER KMN. 
4-00 



:500 



ZQO 



100 





1 

i 


^ 




\ \ 


i 
1 

1 





175 CHILDREN (AFTER COURTIS) 

SALT LAKE CITY. 1624 CHILDREN: 

AFTER COURTIS, 103 CLIXSS AAtDIAN? 
AFTER COURTIS, 1060 CHILDREN 



FIG. 22. RATE OF EEADING IX SALT LAKE CITY CO:\I- 
PARED A\^ITH TESTS MADE IN OTHER CITIES. 



rate at which these passages have been read by three other 
groups of children. The showing which the Salt Lake City 



THE INSTRUGTION MEASURED. 



163 



schools has made stands well above these records, with the ex- 
ception of three points at which the small group of 175 children 
surpassed them. This would seem to indicate that Salt Lake 
City ranks well in point of speed in reading. 

The memory test. As explained above the second test was 
a check on memory of what was read. In this test the same 
wide variety of results were found to appear, and are shown in 
Table No. 26, both with the median for each grade and the per 
cent of the points- which were correctly checked. In the per 



TABLE NO. 26. 

SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF POINTS EEAD AND 

OF THE NUMBER WHICH WERE REMEMBERED, 

WITH THE MEDIAN, AND THE PER CENT, 

CORRECT. 

(Courtis Test) 



GRADE 



NUMBER OF POINTS 



Points 



VIII. 



VII. 



VI. 



V. 



Read 
Right 

Read 
Right 

Read 
Right 

Read 
Right 



10 
14 

IT 

49 
14 
58 
23 
85 
32 
101 



15| 20| 25 
19| 24| 29 
67 



30| 35|40 
341 39|ovr 



67 
122 

66 
152 

86 
146 
112 
133 



121 

78 

145 

104 

135 

94 

126 

60 



7| 
0|79.3 

9| 

4J72.8 

7| 

5|77.1 

8| 

5174.0 



cent correct the eighth grade stands somewhat above the others, 
but the seventh grade falls below the sixth, none averaging far 
from three-fourths correct. In Figure 23 the relation of the 
amount remembered to the amount read in one minute is clearly 
shown. By tjie solid line one sees the number of points read, 
and by the dotted line the number correctly checked. The 



16i 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



GRADE 'VTTT 




*a *fl 3J 3t. 34 Ji 3o 2S St 24 i2 ^0 (5 lb '^ li. :o 5 b 4- Z o 

FIG. 23. EELATIOX OF SPEED TEST TO MEMOEY TEST 

IX KEADIXG. 

scale at the bottom shows the uumber of ji^-^iuts, aud the scale 
on the left iudieates the uumber of children attaiuiug these 
scores. The medians are marked by vertical lines, solid for the 
number read, and dotted for the number right. It is regretted 
that there are no available data with which to compare these 
facts. They may stand, however, as a valuable basis for later 
tests by teachers and supervisors who wish to measure progress 
from time to time in this feature of reading. 

The problem the schools must meet. The main suggestions 
that grow out of these tests of reading are that, as in the other 
subjects, the real genius in the schools is not being instructed 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



165 



under the best conditions. These children should be so class- 
ified that they will need to work up to their full capacity. 
On the other hand, the extremely slow pupils shown in these 
tests should be receiving special instruction which cannot be 
given economically in the ordinary classroom and with the 
regular class. Less emphasis needs to be placed upon school 
grades, and more upon proper classification of the individual 
child. Along with the excellent standing which the city's 
schools are showing in these tests they must bend their ener- 
gies to this problem' of refining the teaching adjustments to 
more adequately meet the needs of individual children. So 
far as these tests go they show this to be an immediate and a 
pressing problem in instruction and internal organization which 
the schools are now facing. 

5. THE TESTS IN ARITHMETIC. 
Arithmetic in the course of study. Arithmetic is taught in 
all grades, and the course outlined seems in the main in keep- 
ing with the best thought on this subject. The degree of im- 
portance which attaches to this subject in the schools of the 
city is well indicated by the amount of time which is devoted 
to it. The amount varies greatly between schools, and between 
grades. Some classes are spending as much as 500 minutes per 
week on the subject, while others are spending but 20 or 30 
minutes. The approximate average ranges from 50 minutes per 
week in grade one to 290 minutes for grade eight. Rather ex- 
tensive investigation of this matter has lead to the recom- 
mendation of the following grade distribution of time for 



TABLE NO. 26. 
AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION OF TIME IN ARITHMETIC. 



Grade 


1 1 2 1 3 4 15 6 1 7 


8 


Per cent of total time 


Proposed maxi- 
mum Standard 


75|1001125 150|150 150 150 


170 
290 


10.7 


Salt Lake City ., 


50|100|225 225|250 240|250 


14.3 



166 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

arithmetic, with which that for Salt Lake City may be com- 
pared :* 

From this it will be seen that arithmetic is receiving more 
than its fnll share of attention in the city, approximately 14.3 
per cent of the school time being' devoted to the snbject, 
whereas this investigation supports argument for but 10.7 per 
cent. It should be added here that another investigation has 
shown that, of twenty-six cities devoting from 7 to 22 per cent, 
of their school time to arithmetic, those devoting more than 
the median amount for these twenty-six cities ranked very little 
higher in the reasoning test reported below than did the cities 
using less than that amount.** 

In interpreting the following results in the tests this time 
cost must not be overlooked, even if there are numerous cities 
whose time allotment for arithmetic is equally high. 

The tests in arithmetic covered the four fundamental oper- 
ations, and their application in a series of problems involving 
a test of the children's ability to reason. The first are known 
as the Courtis Standard Tests,t and the second as the Stone 

reasonino' tests. tt 
* ^ 

How the Arithmetic was tested. The following instruc- 
tions, followed by typical examples, illustrate the nature of 
the tests in addition, substraetion, multiplication and division. 



*The distribution recommended is based on the median recitation 
time expenditure in 630 cities. W. A. Jessup: The Fourteenth Tear 
Book of the National Society for the Study of Education, Ch. VITI. (1915.) 

**Stone, C. ^^'. Arithmetical Abilities and Some Factors Determin- 
ing Them. Teachers" CoUeg-e, Publications, N. T., 1908. 



■rCourtis. S. A. Standard Tests. S2 Eliot St.. Detroit, Mich. 
■rtStone, C. V\'. Arithmetical Abilities and Some Factors Determining 
Them. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. I67 

ARITHMETIC. FOUR FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS. 

(The following are selected examples of the problems given the chil- 
dren to solve m the assigned time. Four printed pages, one for each 
of the fundamental operations, were used. The problems have been so 
arranged that each presents equal difficulty. ) 

You will be given eight minutes to find the answers to as many 
of these addition examples as possible. Write the answers on this 
paper directly underneath the examples. You are not expected to be 
able to do them all. You will be marked for both speed and accuracy 
but It IS more important to have your answers right than to try a 
great many examples. 



927 


297 


136 


486 


384 


176 


277 


837 


379 


925 


340 


765 


477 


783 


445 


882 


756 


473 


988 


524 


881 


697 


682 


959 


837 


983 


386 


140 


266 


200 


594 


603 


924 


315 


353 


812 


679 


366 


481 


118 


110 


661 


904 


466 


241 


851 


778 


781 


854 


794 


547 


355 


796 


535 


849 


756 


965 


177 


192 


834 


850 


323 


157 


222 


344 


124 


439 


567 


733 


229 


953 


525 



You will be given four minutes to find the answers to as many 
of these subtraction examples as possible. Write the answers on this 
paper directly underneath the examples. You are not expected to be 
able to do them all. You will be marked for both speed and accuracy 
but it is more important to have your answers right than to try a 
great many examples. 

115364741 67298125 92057352 113380936 

80195261 29346861 42689037 42556840 



You will be given six minutes to work as many of these multiplica- 
tion examples as possible. You are not expected to be able to do them 
all. Do your work directly on this paper; use no other. You will be 
markfed for both speed and accuracy, but it is more important to have 
your answers right than to try a great many examples. 

8246 3597 5739 2648 9537 

_29 73 85 46 92 

You will be given eight minutes to work as many of these division 
examples as possible. You are not expected to be able to do them all 
Do your work directly on this paper; use no other. You will be 
marked for both speed and accuracy, but it is more important to have 
your answers right than to try a great many examples. 

25)6775 94)85352 37)9990 86)80066 

(On the following page is a reduced reproduction of the sheet 
given each pupil for the reasoning test. The use of scratch paper 
was permitted, and the results were entered after each problem on 
this sheet. 



16S 



SCHOOL SUKVEY REPORT 



School. 



ARITHMETIC. REASONING TESTS. 
Grade . . Name of Pupil 



Problem 
Value 



1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 
1.0 

1.4 

1.2 
1.6 

2.0 

2.C 
2.0 

2.0 



PROBLEMS. 



Solve as many of the following problems as you 
have time for; work them in order as numbered: 

1 If you buy 2 tablets at 7 cents each and a book 
for 65 cents, how much change should you receive 
from a two-dollar bill? 

2 John sold -i Saturday Evening Posts at 5 cents 
each. He kept i^ the money and with the other 
^■2 he bought Sunday papers at 2 cents each. How 
many did he buy? 

3 If James had 4 times as much money as 
George, he would have $16. How much money has 
George? 

4 How many pencils can you buy for 50 cents at 
the rate of 2 for 5 cents? 

5 The uniforms for a baseball nine cost $2.50 
each. The shoes cost $2 a pair. What was the 
total cost of uniforms and shoes for the nine? 

6 In the schools of a certain city there are 2,200 
pupils: ^2 are in the primary grades, ^^4 in the 
grammar grades, ^s in the High School and the 
rest in the night school. How many pupils are 
there in the night school? 

7 If 31^ tons of coal cost $21, what will SVo 
tons cost? 

8 A newsdealer bought some magazines for $1. 
He sold them for $1.20. gaining 5 cents on each 
magazine. How many magazines were there? 

9 A girl spent ^s of her money for car fare, and 
three times as much for clothes. Half of what she 
had left was SO cents. How much money did she 
have at first? 

10 Two girls receive 
holes. One makes 42, 
they divide the money. 

1 1 Mr. Brown paid one-third of the 
building: Mr. Johnson paid ^2 the cost, 
son received $500 more annual rent 
Brown. How much did each receive? 

12 A freight train left Albany for New York at 
i 6 o'clock. An express left on the same track at 8 

o'clock. It went at the rate of 40 miles an hour. 
At what time of day will it overtake the freight 
train if the freight train stops after it has gone 56 
j miles ? 

i Total Score Made by Pupil. 

Directions to Teacher: 

1. Cross off the problem value for each problem not correctly 
solved or not attempted by the pupil named, and then add up the 
remainder. This will give the score earned by this pupil. 



$2.10 for making button- 
the other 28. How shall 



cost of a 
Mr. John- 
than Mr. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 169 

There were more examples in each of the four sets than 
any child would be likely to work in the time allowed, which 
was 8 minutes each for addition and division, four minutes 
for subtraction, and six minutes for multiplication. The ex- 
amples were all printed, and the necessary oral explanations 
were made by the member of the survey in charge, who timed 
the classes and instructed teachers how to score the results. 

The same schools and classes as were used in the other 
tests were used for all the arithmetic tests. 

The reasoning test was presented to the child in the form 
printed on page 168. On the left are the values assigned to 
the problems, each of' which has been carefully standardized 
for testing purposes, and the values assigned represent the 
relative difficulties of the different problems. 

Results of tests in the fundamentals. The tables and dia- 
grams given on the pages which follow will show the results of 
the tests, first presenting those for the fundamentals, and later 
those for reasoning. 

Table No. 28 shows the full distribution of scores, by 
grades, ifor each of the subjects, and with the median score 
attained in each case. It will be seen that the same wide 
range of abilities as was shown in the other tests appears here 
also, and in each grade. The nature and extent of this dis- 
tribution is clearly brought out in Figure 24, which shows on 
each section the median score attained by each grade. 

It appears that the median child in the seventh grade is 
not as far ahead of the median child in the sixth as is the sixth 
grade child ahead of the fifth, or the eighth ahead of the sev- 
enth. In the matter of accuracy, v/hich will be discussed later, 
this difference does not appear. 

From this test, the average, or median child in the Salt Lake 
City schools may be expected to work examples in the funda- 
mentals, such as those used, at the following rates (using 8 
minutes in addition, 4 minutes in subtraction, 6 minutes in mul- 
tiplication, and 8 minutes in division) : 

Jf in grade 5, he can add 4.1 examples, subtract 5.2, mul- 
tiply 4.3 and divide 3.0. 



170 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



TABLE XO. 2S. 
Showing the distribution of children with respect to the 
number of examples finished. (Courtis' Standard Test.) 

ADDITION (Time 8 minutes) 



Grad3 


Total 
Papers 


NUMBER OF EXAMPLES WORKED 


Median 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 


Score 


VIII 


350 


4 14 IS 27 37 45 47 27 38 37 IS 17 8 1 7 2 2 1 


8.8 


VII 


447 


5 9 22 38 36 44 45 66 59 31 39 21 13 6 6 2 2 1 1 1 


6.9 


VI 


416 


13 24 36 32 57 39 a^ 38 32 2S 22 13 9 9 1 1 1. 1 


6.4 


V 


460 


24 31 60 7S 66 66 47 32 21 16 10 2 4 1 1 1 4.1 





SUBTRACTION (Time 4 minutes) 




Grade Jotal 
Papers 


NUMBER OF EXAMPLES WORKED 


Median 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 


Score 
9.8 


VIII 351 


3 4 4 11 27 33 36 44 50 32 26 IS 14 10 17 7 7 3 13 1 


VII 437 


4 S 6 19 27 40 46 52 53 63 42 30 15 8 5 10 3 2 2 1 1 


8.8 


VI 423 


4 8 13 17 36 43 46 56 61 43 29 30 23 7 1 3 3 


7.8 


V 4t«.i 


S 19 38 54 57 75 64 41 33 33 19 11 3 2 1 1 1 


5.2 



MULTIPLICATION Time 6 minutes) 



''^'^ plSrl 


NUMBER OF EXAMPLES WORKED 


Median 
Score 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 


VIII 353 


1 1 4 3 11 29 3S 59 37 42 33 29 24 7 11 11 7 1 2 1 2 


8.3 


VII 443 


1 7 19 22 31 50 59 59 69 47 37 20 11 2 5 2 2 


7.1 


VI 412 


10 9 20 51 54 76 68 30 40 20 17 10 5 1 1 


5.3 


V 458 


10 IS 50 7710283 53 26 16 16 3 3 1 


4.3 







DIVISION (Time 8 minutes 






Grade 


Total 
Papers 


NUMBER OF EXAMPLES WORKED 




Median 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 


22 


23 24 Score 


vin 


3.' 2 


2 1 2 3 17 19 26 37 33 38 31 36 41 19 11 15 6 4 5 4 1 




1 9.5 


vn 


450 


4 14 16 26 30 43 37 40 45 44 40 26 36 21 10 6 4 3 2 1 2 




7.7 


VI 


^2 


10 23 30 45 49 52 49 44 32 33 18 13 14 7 1 1 1 




5.5 


v 


457 


42 72 78 81 79 45 29 20 6 2 2 1 




3.0 







I I 



I I I I I 



'^ ' 



I I I I t I I I I I I 



I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 
I I I I I I I I I I > I I I I I 




172 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

If in grade 6, he can add 6.4 examples, subtract 7.8, mul- 
tiply 5.3, and divide 5.5. 

If in grade 7, lie can add 6.9 examples, subtract 8.8, mul- 
tiply 7.1. and divide 7.7. 

If in grade 8, he can add 8.8 examples, subtract 9.8, mul- 
tiply 8.3, and divide 9.5. 

Widely different results in different schools. The full 
details of this is shown, for the fourteen schools tested, by 
Table No. 29, which gives the score of the median child in each 
grade and in each subject, combining them for the city as a 
whole at the bottom of the table. 

From this table it appears that there is a wide difference 
between schools. In addition we find a range in grade five of 
from 2.8 to 6.5 ; in grade six from 2.5 to 9.3 ; in grade seven 
from 3.7 to 9.9 ; and in grade eight from 5.3 to 10.0. In the 
other subjects the range is approximately the same. It is in- 
teresting to add that in three of the four grades taking the 
addition test, those classes which made the highest standing 
are using exactly the same number of minutes per week on 
arithmetic as are the classes which made the lowest stand- 
ing. 

If the amount of time used on the subject does not ac- 
count for the wide differences which this table reveals, and 
apparently it does not, then this would seem to be a condi- 
tion worthy of study by principals and supervisors. Just 
what ought to be accomplished in a given grade, with a given 
time allotment, is a question which can well be raised in con- 
nection with each of the subjects presented in this chapter. 
Every city system of schools should have standards of its oavu 
for everj^ subject, which each school should strive to approx- 
imate. These standards need not be identical with those in 
other cities, but should be determined by the relative im- 
portance of the different subjects for its own community. 
The same principle will justify slight variations in those 
standards for different schools, as they represent varying 
types of community life within a city. But this table reveals 



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174 



SCHOOL Sl'KVEY REPORT 



t'xtrenu'ly wido dift'eroiu'cs, whicli t-oiulitioiis in Salt Lake 
City do not seom t(» warrant. A reasonable nniforniity in rv- 
snlts is as desirable as is a wholesome lack ot" unit'oruiity in 
nietliods of iiettiiig- those results. 

Compai*ison with other cities. To nieasnre the results 
aehieved in Salt Lake City with similar results attained in 
other cities, Table No. 30 is presented. Here Hie relative stand- 
ing of Detroit. Boston, a ijroup of smaller cities, called "'other 
cities." Butte, and Salt Lake City, arc phuwl side by side 
for each of the four subjects. These results are absolutely 



TABLE NO. 30. 
THE STANDLXO OF SALT LAKE CITY IN THE FUNDA- 
MENTALS OF .VKITIDIETIC AS COMPARED WITH 
OTHER CITIES. jrDGP:D BY THE .MEDIAN 
SCORE ATTAINED BY EACH GRADE. 



ADDITION 



MULTIPLICATION 



V 1 


VI 1 


VII 


VIII 


3.9 


4.6 


5.4 


6.7 ; 


3.7 


4.9 


5.6 


7.S 


3.9 


4.4 


4.7 


5.6 


2.9 


3.4 


3.8 


5.3 


4,1 


6.4 


6.9 


8.5 



V I VI I VII ,VI1I 



Detroit 

Boston 

Other Cities 

Butte 

Salt Lake City 



3.8 
3 .3 
2.6 
4.1 
4.3 



4.8 


6.0 


! 4.8 


5.1 


1 4.5 


5.2 


5.0 


6.5 


5.3 


7.1 



7.5 
6.5 
6.4 
8.1 
8.3 



SUBTRACTION 






DIVISION 


5.5 


6.2 :.."> 9.5 ' 


Detroit 


2.7 


4.4 7.1 S.S 


4.9 


6.3 \ 6.9 1 8.6 


Boston 


2.0 


3.3 i 5.1 6.9 


4.5 


6.1 ! 7.8 j 8.4 i 


C)ther Cities 


2.3 


4.3 5.8 6.3 


2.9 


3.4 1 3.8 j 5.3 i 


Butte 


3.6 


4.3 • 7.2 10.2 


5.2 


7.8 8.8 9,8 


Salt Lake City 


3.0 


5.5 , 7.7 ; 9.5 



comparable, and shv>w the Salt Lake City schools to stand well 
ahead in all gfrades in addition and multiplication, in two 
irrades in subtraction, and in two grrades in division. Nowhere 
are the Salt Lake City sehools more than .7 of one score behind 
the best. Figure 25 presents this data graphically, and by fol- 
lowing the dotted line act\^ss from each of the grades it will be 
seen that in many eases Salt Lake City is fi\>m one-half to a full 
grade ahead of other cities, rarely being surpassed by any ex- 
cept Butte. This is perhaps an enviable record, but it must 





DETROIT -go 



SALT LAKE cmr 



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1715 SCHOOL STMJVKY KErORT 

not Ih^ forjrotteii that the above votVrenee to iiulividual. elass, 
and seliool veeords leave!> nmeh to aeeoniplish by way of tiner 
internal organization auil more eareful individualized instnie- 
tion. 

Accuracy in use of number combinations. The above has 
dealt only with examj)les eorreetly worked, and does not show 
how many were attempted, or for whieh ineorreet answers 
were given : that is, how dependable the tignring- of the ehil- 
dren really is. A lypieal illustration of the distribution of 
attempts iss shown in Table No. 31, which gives the nttmber 
of addition examples attempted by eaeh grade, the median 
number attempted, and finally the per eenr whieh the median 
number eorreetly Avorked is of the median number attempted. 
That is, the per cent of aeenraey. 



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17S 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



In the luattor of aoeuraey thus measurod, Table No. 32 
eomparos the seliools of Salt Lako City with those of ]>oton. De- 
troit and twontv eities in Indiana roeentlv tested. The median 



TABLE NO. S'2. 

SllOAVlXO THE .AIEDIAN XOIBER OF EXA.AIPLES TKJED 

AND THE MEDIAN NUMBER CORRECTLY WORKED 

IN THE SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOLS, AND THE PER 

CENT OF exa:mples tried ayihcii were 

CORRECTLY "WORKED IN SALT LAKE CITY 
AS COMPARED WITH OTHF^R CITIES. 







Salt Lake City 






Subject 


Grade 


Median 


Per Gent of Examples Correct Worked 




iktttmpts 


Rights 


Salt Lake 
City 


Boston Detroit | ^cit"et* 




Tin 


9.9 


8.5 


88.8 


70.9 65.7 ! 56.8 


Addition 


VII 


9.1 


6.9 


75.8 


60.8 59.8 1 60.5 




VI 


7.9 


6.4 


81.0 


59.0 54.7 1 59.4 




V 


6.9 


4.1 


56.9 


51.4 58.2 j 54.5 




vin 


11.8 


9.8 


S3.1 


75.4 77.2 ! 68.5 


Subtraotioi 


I VII 


10.1 


8.8 


S7.1 


69.0 1 74.5, 73.0 




VI 


8.5 


7.8 


91.7 


70.0 70.4 76.4 




V 


7.5 


5.2 


69.3 


64.4 68.7 79.5 




VIII 


10.8 


8.3 


76. S 


6S.4 I 71.4 1 6:. 9 


Multiplicat 


ion VII 


8.6 


7.1 


82.5 


63. S 1 62.5 1 67.1 




VI 


7.7 


5.3 


66.8 


69.5 ! 64. S ' 68. 6 




V 


6.6 


4.3 
9.5 


65.1 
92.2 


56.8 ' . 59.3 ' 71.5 




VIII 


10.3 


77.1 I 55.1 ; 57.8 


Division 


VII 


8.7 


7.7 


88.5 


73.9 ! 68.7 1 84.2 




VI 


6.7 


5.5 


82.1 


56.9 1 82.5 ! 78.8 




V 


4.4 


3.0 


68.2 


44.4 1 85.4 1 85.8 



♦Indiana University Bulletin. Vol. XII. No. IS, Mar.. 1915. 
These figui-es represent the record attained by the median city of 
the twenty cities studied. A co-operative study, directed by Prof. M. 
E. Haggerty. 

attempts and median rights are shown for Salt Lake City, 
the rights being divided by the attempts to ascertain the per 
cent of aeenraey. Here again Salt Lake City stands high. In 
aeouraey the eity is snrpassed in bnt one grade out of the four 
tested: in subtraction in but one grade: in multiplication, by- 
two grades: and in division by two. The seventh and eighth 
grades are not surpassed in aiiy case. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



179 



A graphic illustration, fully typical of the results in this 
table, is shown in Figure 26, where Salt Lake City is compared 
with Detroit, and the twenty Indiana cities in respect to ac- 
curacy in addition. 



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DETROIT 5ALTLAKE ^0 CITIES 

CITY IN INDIANA 

FIG. 26. RELATIVE ACCURACY IN ADDITION. 

It is clear then that Salt Lake City, as compared with 
other cities, is achieving nothing short of excellent results in 
the fundamentals of arithmetic, and that not only with re- 
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The reasoning test. AVhere reasoning is involved, the 
test is not only one of correct use of number combinations, 
but also one of analyzing simple arithmetical problems. In 
this test the children of Salt Lake City again rank high. The 



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FIG. 27. DISTKIBUTION OF RESULTS IN THE STONE 
REASONING TESTS. 



182 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

distribution of individual scores are set forth in Table No. 33 
which shows also the achievement for the median child of each 
grade. These facts are presented graphically in Figure 27. 

Here the same wide varia'bility as has appeared in other 
tests is again evident. In grade five there were fifteen chil- 
dren who could not solve one of the seventeen problems set 
for the test, while more than sixty children solved seven or 
more. In grades seven and eight the distribution is still wider. 
In order to show that this is fully typical of the condition 
existing in almost every individual class, Table No. 33, pre- 
senting the exact scores made by one class from each grade is 
given. 

On the basis of these facts we must again ask: How 
can a lesson be assigned to such classes so that, on the one 
hand it is not so difficult as to be impossible for the children 
at one extreme of this table, or on the other hand so easy as 
to 'be a mere bore to the children at the other extreme. Here 
it is not a question of high average results, for these are high 
enough; it is one of refining organization and instruction to 
the end that children of extremely high and extremely low 
a'bilities will not constitute handicaps for each other. 

The improvement from grade to grade, as is shown in 
Figure 27, seems all that could be desired, and Table No. 35 
shows, with some exceptions in grade five, a fair degree of 
uniformity of results between schools. 

These facts seem to argue that the schools have a clear 
notion of what is to be attained by each grade, but that they 
are getting results only in terms of class averages and at the 
expense of right class room conditions. By giving attention 
to these inner details 'Salt Lake City can raise the excellent 
standards she has already achieved. 

Comparison with other cities in reasoning test. The au- 
thor of this reasoning test has presented the records made by 
the sixth grade in twenty-six different cities. Add to these 
the records of Bridgeport, Conn., Springfield, 111., and Salt 
Lake City, and Salt Lake City stands 9th from the top of the 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 



183 



TABLE NO. 35. 

SHOWING THE AVERAGE SCORE ATTAINED BY CLASS- 
ES IN THE VARIOUS SCHOOLS IN THE REASON- 
ING TEST IN ARITHMETIC. 

(Stone Test). 



School 



GRADE 



VIII 


VII 


VI 


V 


10.5 


8.6 


6.4 


3.7 


9.3 


10.6 


6.6 


2.9 




7.7 


7.4 


4.6 




8.2 


5.4 


4.6 


11.7 


8.3 


6.5 


4.0 




10.8 


4.1 


2.2 


10.6 


8.6 


7.4 


4.8 


9.1 


9.5 


6.2 


3.2 




8.9 


7.6 


4.6 


9.7 


7.6 


5.3 


3.3 




10.0 


6.2 


4.4 


9.0 


7.8 


4.8 


4.4 




8.0 


7.2 


3.4 


10.2 


10.4 


5.9 


4.1 


14.5 




7.0 


5.5 



Total for City 

Forest 

Grant 

Hamilton . . . 
Lafayette . . . 

Lincoln 

Lowell 

Onequa 

Oquirrh 

Riverside . . . 

Sumner 

Training .... 
Wasatch .... 
Webster .... 
Whittier .... 



list. The highest score, based on the score per each 100 pupils, 
attained by any one of these twenty-nine cities was 914; the 
lowest was 356. That for Salt Lake City was 646. 

As compared, grade by grade, with the results in Butte, 
Salt Lake City's median fifth grade child can solve 1.5 more 
problems of this test than can the median fifth grade child of 
Butte ; the sixth grade child of Salt Lake City can solve 2.5 
more ; the seventh grade child 2.8 more, and the eighth grade 
child 2.8 more. 

From these results it is clear that the schools of this city 
rank high in the ability of their children to reason. It is also 
true, as stated above, that the present problem is one of perfect- 
ing the details of class organization and instruction. 



IS4 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

G. SIT]\IMAKY AND EECO^IMENDATION. 

This chapter has not dealt Avith the quality of instruction iu 
general, but only as quality has boon revealed by aetnal results, 
stated iu terms of standardized tests. It is therefore eoneerned 
with the eanses of poor or excellent quality, only as the data 
Avith Avhieh it deals makes these causes evideui. 

Conclusions. Iu so i'ar as the resvdts fonud have shown 
that the schools aro controlliug', with good effect, those uu\in 
factors which were enumerated at the outset of the chapter 
as beiuii' principally responsible for the quality of instruction, 
those results have been connnended. On the other hand, where 
the schools are clearly not exercising" such control, the nature 
of such failure has been pointed out. and the responsibility 
placed. It is only necessary to summarize the findings here, 
and to furtlu'^r emphasize the lines along whieli improvements 
and further progress should be sought. 

1. It should first of all be said that Salt Lake City ranks 
high among cities of her class, in each of the tive studies in 
which tests were given. The comparison being made in terms 
of average attaiuu\ent. 

i!. In spelling, so large a percentage of children made a 
perfect score that full interpretation of the results is ditHeult. 
The city's average standing being Iti per cent above the stan- 
dard. 

3. In spelling, language, writing, and in the fundamen- 
tals of arithmetic, wide dilferences exisft between the results 
shown for dilferent schools. Foreign languages at home may 
partly account for such differences, particularly in composi- 
tion. There is a limit, though, to which even such causes 
sliould be permitted to modify the school standards. If a child 
is doing tifth grade language work he should not ordinarily be 
classed as an eighth grade pupil. 

4. The differences between grades are. with few excep- 
tions, approximately what they should be. 

5. The range of abilities in any given grade is entirely too 
great, as judged by all of the five tests. 



THE INSTRUCTION MEASURED. 185 

G. Siniihirly the range oi abilities within a given class, 
again in all subjects tested, is far too great. 

7. At least one-fourth more time is being given to spelling 
and more than one-fourth more to arithmetic than is justified 
in the light of the best knowledge on llie subject. 

Recommendations. "With these facts before us the follow- 
ing recommendations are made: 

1. 'Spelling should not have more than GO to 75 minutes 
per week, and aritlnnctic from 75 minutes in grade two, to 200 
minutes in grade eight. A part of the surplus time from these 
two branches should be given to language work, and part to 
other parts of the curriculum than the subjects dealt with here. 

2. The only economical and pedagogical way of meeting 
the needs of the extremely dull and extremely bright pupils 
(perhaps from four to ten per cent of each class tested) is 
by a nuu^h larger use of ungraded rooms to which the most 
skillful teachers should be assigned. It would be easy for all 
the larger schools of the city to find from 25 to 50 children 
who ought for their ow^n sakes, and for the sakes of other 
children as well, to be placed in such rooms. This would pro- 
vide an inestima'ble relief in all class work in the school. This 
is the most evident and the most important need which is 
brought to light by these tests. 

3. The best and most constant supervision of this work is 
needed to work out necessary readjustments. It should be 
added that, so long as the grade lines are stiffly maintained as 
the only basis for the classification of children, part of the value 
of expert supervision is nullified. 

4. In addition to this, promotion by subjects ought to be 
a possibility more frequently made use of. When a fourth 
grade child can read as well as a seventh grade child, he 
ought not to be kept in the fourth grade for reading just be- 
cause he cannot leave his fourth grade arithmetic. 

5. Briefly, what the schools have achieved in general, they 
should now set themselves to achieve in particular. 



186 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

The use of standardized tests. A final word may be said 
about the use of standard tests. First, we desire to commend 
the use the supervisors and principals have been making of 
these modern educational tools. Teachers should become famil- 
iar with such scales and tests as have been used here, not with 
how they were made, but with how to use them. The teacher 
who is able to measure her own product,- or to have it measured 
by the supervisor, will develop confidence in her methods or 
discover reasons for changing them. 

As an instrument in supervision, tests are indispensable. 
Of course testing can never displace constructive helpful crit- 
icism, but standardized tests furnish a rational basis for such 
criticism, without which the best supervision is handicapped. 
So far as was observed they are being properly used by the 
principals and supervisors, but they may even go further in 
displacing the ordinary form of school examination. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 187 

CHAPTER IX. 
THE PROGRESS OF CHILDREN THROUGH THE SCHOOLS. 

("Williams.) 

Importance of proper school progress. A problem which 
is of increasing importance in education today is that of school 
progress. Since the welfare of the individual child is the aim 
toward which every good school system works, the recognition 
and analysis of the differences among children calls for much 
greater attention than is usually given. Children are ordi- 
narily expected to enter the first grade of the elementary 
school at the age of six, and to complete the eighth grade dur- 
ing their fourteenth year. Those who accomplish this are 
said to have made normal progress. It is for these, who con- 
stitute the majority of our school children, that the course of 
study and the system of grading are best adapted. 

Those who complete the eighth grade in less than eight 
years after entering, or whose age at any time during that 
period is less than that of the child whose progress is normal, 
are said to be accelerated. 

There is still another group of children, who require more 
than eight, years to finish the elementary school, or whose age 
at some time is greater than that of the normal child. These 
are said to be retarded. 

Age and grade distribution. Statistics were collected in 
regard to the ages and grades of all the children in the public 
schools of Salt Lake City on the tenth day of May, 1915. The 
results have been tabulated, and are shown in Table No. 36. 
The number of children of each half-year of age, and in each 
half-grade are given, and the heavy-faced figures running 
diagonally through the center of the table indicate the number 
of children who are normal for each age and grade. For exam- 
ple, this includes those in the first grade who are between the 





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PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN 



189 



ages of six and one-half and eight years.* All of those falling 
below this normal line are "over age," and may be considered 
retarded; those above the normal line are accelerated. 

The percentages of children of each of these groups, and 
by grades, are shown in Table No. 37. 

TABLE NO. 37. 

ACCELERATED, NORMAL AND RETARDED PUPILS IN 

SALT LAKE CITY, BY GRADES. 





Accelerated 


Normal 


Retarded 


GRADE 


No. 


1 % 


No. 


io 


No. 


io 


lA 


37 
580 

45 
327 

86 
316 

77 
206 

75 
182 

85 
123 

49 
146 

36 
178 


5.9 
30.0 
57.1 
23.6 
10.7 
21.3 

8.6 
16.2 

8.5 
16.1 
10.7 
12.2 

7.7 
15.1 

9.9 
18.1 


355 
954 
318 
689 
368 
656 
345 
518 
279 
426 
225 
358 
183 
340 
131 
338 


55.8 
49.3 
30.7 
49.6 
43.9 
44.0 
38.8 
40.8 
31.7 
37.0 
28.3 
35.5 
29.8 
35.3 
36.4 
34.7 


239 
40 
273 
372 
385 
516 
470 
548 
525 
527 
486 
528 
392 
480 
194 
460 


38.3 


IB 


20.7 


IIA 

IIB 


12.2 
26.8 


IIIA 

IIIB 

IVA 


46.3 
34.7 
52.6 


IVB 


43.0 


VA 

VB 


59.8 
46.4 


VIA 


61.0 


VIB 

VIIA 

VIIB 


52.3 
62.5 
49.6 


VIIIA 


53.7 


VIIIB 


47.2 








Hi 


gh Sch 


30l. 








IXA 


17 
91 

6 
71 

3 
70 


53 


5.7 
18.1 

6.3 
18.7 

4.8 
26.3 
66.7 
25.7 


89 

172 

33 

135 

23 

90 

4 

93 

7122 


31.2 
34.4 
34.7 
35.7 
37.3 
33.9 
33.3 
45.2 


180 
236 

56 
248 

36 

105 

2 

59 


63.1 


IXB 1 


47.5 


XA 


59.0 


XB 1 


45.6 


XIA 


57.9 


XIB 


39.8 


XIIA 





XIIB 


29.1 






Totals 


2859 


16.2 


40.0 


7641 


43.4 



*It should be remembered that the age-grade statistics were taken 
at the end of the school year, so that the age for completing any grade 
rather than that of beginning is taken. The basis used in determining 
overageness is the usual basis for counting. The three-year limit used 
in the Salt Lake City school reports is too liberal. 



liX> 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



FiiTuvo 'JS. in wliich tho distribution of the total school en- 
rolhuont in this respect is sho\vn. o-ives the same result in 
graphic I'orni. 




L 



FIGUKK •:>. SllOAVlNG EELATIVE PKOPORTIONS OF 
NOKMAL. KETARDED AND ACCELEKATED PU- 
PILS IX THE SAET LAKE CITY SCITOOLS. 

High percentage of retarded pupils. The sii^-niticant fact 
in regard to this distrilnitioit is that the retarded grotip is the 
largest of the three. The backward children in I'ae ungraded 
school are not iui'luded in these percentages. If these \Yere 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 191 

added, the proportion represented by the dark area of the circle 
would be still greater. 

This city ranks among those having a relatively high per- 
centage of retarded pupils. Table No. 38 gives a list of cities 
in which similar studies have been made. All, with the excep- 
tion of Salt Lake City and Butte, Montana, have been taken 
from Ayres' "Identification of the Misfit Child.**" 

TABLE NO. 38. 
RETARDATION IN AMERICAN CITIES. 

Retarded Normal Accelerated 

1. Quincy, Mass 19% 31% 50% 

2. Racine, Wis 28 42 30 

3. Amsterdam, N. Y 28 23 49 

4. Syracuse, N. Y 29 29 42 

5. Indianapolis, Ind 29 37 34 

6. Danbury, Conn 31 31 38 

7. Milwaukee, Wis 31 41 28 

8. Rockford, 111 32 40 28 

9. Canton, 34 38 28 

10. Elmira, N. Y 34 28 38 

n. New Rochelle, N. Y 34 30 3(5 

12. Muskegon, Mich 35 40 25 

13. Niagara Palls, N. Y 36 33 31 

14. Topeka, Kansas 36 3'8 26 

15. Danville, 111 38 34 28 

16. Trenton, N. J 38 31 31 

17. Reading, Pa 40 35 25 

18. Plainfield, N. J 40 30 3i/ 

19. Perth Amboy, N. J 41 32 27 

20. Bayonne, N. J 42 31 27 

21. Hazelton, Pa 42 36 22 

22. Salt Lake City 43 40 16 

23. East St. Louis, 111 44 34 22 

24. Elizabeth, N. J 46. 31 23 

25. Kenosha, Wis 48 36 16 

26. Montdair, N. J 48 34 18 

27. New Orleans, La. (White) 49 31 20 

28. Butte, Mont 51 41 7 

29. Passaic, N. J 51 32 17 

**Russell iSage Foundation, Bulletin No. 108. 



192 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



It is of further importance to note that not only are 43.3 
per cent of the school children in this city retarded, but in 
many cases the degree of retardation reaches two. three, or 
even more than four years. The amount of each is shown in 
Figure 29. 



.THOUSAND. 



^ ^^^ ^ 




-Q:^ 




2, 1 

ACCELERATED 



1 Z Z> 

RETARDED 



4 YEARS 



FIG-. 29. DEGKEE OF ACCELEKATIOX OE KETAEDA- 
TION OF PUPILS IX THE SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOLS. 

Thus it will be seen that althougrh in the shaded area the 
number retarded one year make up the largest group, nearly 
one-half as many are retarded two years: and that the num- 
ber retarded three and four years is half as large as the two 
year group. Such a condition emphasizes anew the need for 
more ungraded rooms and those pupil adjustments pointed out 
in the last chapter. 

Distribution of the retarded pupils. Figure 30. on the op- 
posite page, shows the extent of this problem in detail, in- 
dicating how each grade in the school is affected by the great 
number of children who varv from the normal. 



ACCELERATED 

O 10 20 




_B ^g^ VVVVVV vV^ 



FIG 30 SHOWING DISTRIBUTION OF NORMAL, ACCELERATED, 
AND RETARDED PUPILS, BY GRADES 



194 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



Retardation liegins early in the grades and increases to 
the sixth grade, ^vhen there is a noticeable falling off. This 
falling off is due in part to the fact that the regular routine 
school work offers little attraction to a child who has be- 
come greatly retarded, and in part to the fact that many reach 
the end of tlif^ compulsory school age by the time this point 
is reached. (See Figure 13, page 63.) Repeating the same 
work over and over again becomes monotonous even for nor- 
mal adults. In Fig 31 the num'ber of children in the A and B 



tc 


) z 


3 


o ■* 


5C 


J GO 


GRADE 


I 










GRADE 


n 






GRADE 


lii 














GRADE 


TV 


















GRADE 


Y 








—J 


GRADE 


YT 




















GRADE 


, Vll 










GRADE 


vm 





















FIG. 31. 



PERCENTAGE OF RETARDED PUPILS, BY 
GRADES. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 



193 



sections of each grade have been added together, and the 
increase in retardation to the sixth grade and the falling off 
thereafter are more clearly shown. 

The amount of retardation in Grade I is 29.5 per cent; 
in Grade VI, 56.6 per cent; and in Grade VIII, 50.4 per cent. 

Dropping out of school on the part of retarded pupils is 
not an uncommon occurrence in our city schools, and has been 
noted in many cities. Investigations show that the children 
who drop out at that time are usually those who have be- 
come discouraged through failures, and through the embarrass- 
ment of being greatly over age. It would be comparatively 
easy to show that dropping out of school before reaching the 
eighth grade is many times as common among retarded chil- 
dren as among those who have made normal progress. 

Conditions in one room. The following is an example of 
the conditions found in one class in Salt Lake City. The con- 
dition shown here is not unusual for the city. Such condi- 
tions are not infrequently brought about by the wide range 
of ages in a single room : Miss G., teacher of Grades II-B and 
III- A, in the F. school, has in her room thirty-nine pupils, who 
are distributed by ages thus : 



AGE 



II-B 



III-B 



7.0—7.5 


2 
4 


1 

1 




7.6 7.11 


Accelerated. 






8.0—8.5 


6 
3 








8.6—8.11 


1 
4 


Normal. 






9.0—9.5 


3 
1 








9.6—9.11 


1 
4 








10.0—10.5 


1 
1 
1 


Retarded. 






10.6—10.11 


3, 

1 
1 




11.0—11.5 




11.6—11.11 




12.0—12.5 




12.6—12.11 









196 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

Only those enclosed by the heavy lines can be said to be 
normal. Those above are accelerated, and. those below are 
retarded. "With the accelerated pupils in this room the teacher 
will have little difficulty. True, they may be of superior in- 
telligence, and capable of doing much more work than 
and teacher of thirty-nine pupils can afford to arrange 
for them. But their progress is assured to a reasonable de- 
gree. The striking feature of the class is the "over-ageness" 
with which the teacher has to deal. The seventeen pupils 
represented below the line will require her attention during 
the entire school day, if they are to be properly instructed. In 
fact, a class of seventeen retarded pupils is larger than the 
generally accepted maximum for such classes. 

Fortunately, all of the pupils below the line in this in- 
stance are not mentally below normal. Those nearest the line 
may have been held out of school for a time, or may be retarded 
for reasons of such slight consequence that no unusual amount 
of special attention need be given them. There are at least 
seven pupils in the class, however, who are seriously over-age. 
We may be sure that all of those below the dotted line are in 
need of a great deal of individual instruction or training. 

A proper redistribution of the pupils. Assuming that chil- 
dren can be properly graded in the schools, Figure 32 repre- 
sents the pupils in this room, arranged in order of their ages, 
to show how a reasonable separation could be brought about. 
Such a separation, however, requires the general provision of 
ungraded and special classes. 

After removing the extreme cases, this still leaves thirty 
pupils whose ages vary from 71/2 to 10 years. Considering fur- 
ther the conditions relative to the lighting and ventilating of 
the basement room in which this class was found, it is not diffi- 
cult to see that the teacher will still have a task equal, at least, 
to her compensation. 

The fifth grade as an example of uneven distribution. In 

further illustration of the uneven distribution of children in the 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 



197 



grades, data concerning all fifth grade pupils in the city have 
been brought together and presented in F'igure 33. 

The enrollment and age distribution in this grade are such 
that the group is fairly representative of all the grades, and 
this diagram is not an exaggeration of the unevenness found 
through the school sytsem. 

"Repeaters." Inability on the part of pupils to do the 
work oif their grade usually results in non-promotion, and hence 
the necessity of repeating the work another year or half-year. 
Some children have repeated the work as many as six times, 
and cases of even a larger number of repetitions have been 
found. There were at the time of the survey 1570 pupils 
in Salt Lake City who were repeating their grades. This is 
approximately 9 per cent of the entire number belonging. The 



_ _ 


__ 1 


m Y«5. 




' 


II- 


— _ _____ 




to- - 





-_:;;--- 




9- - - 


_ — — — — _ 


■ ~ ~~ 




g 


■ :'iiiiiii 






T- - - 










G 










J 










W 










z 


JO 1 


■ 




TOTAL, 39 PUPILS. 



FIG. 32. ACCELERATED, NORMAL, AND RETARDED PU- 
PILS' IN ONE ROOM. 



40 






o 
S 

2 CTv 



I 




0^ o 



- '9 :^ i^ ^ "9 ^ 

csi fO t^ ^ ^ . iO lO) 
~p P P .0 p P P 



^ 'o :^ "9 
^ ^ d: ^ 



*9 

9 



JO 
'>3 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 



199 



teacher was asked in each case to state whether the work of 
each child was being taken for the first, second, third, fourth, 
or more times. The number in each case of repetition is as 
follows : 

Taking work the second time 1555 pupils 

Taking work the third time 101 pupils 

Taking work fourth time, or more 14 pupils 

In Figure 34 the relative number of promotions and fail- 
ures are shown for each grade ifor the year 1913-14, as printed 
in the last annual report of the hoard of education. 



ilo.ef cmioneM 








i 


^.^^_ 








3000 


f- 








ZSoo 

Zooo 




1 


1 


■ 


■ 


■ 


I 


h 


ISOO 




















■ 


■ 


■ 


m_ 


1000 




























■ 




J 


_> 




































§ 






































r 






































o 






































to 




SCO 




OD 


< 


(0 


< 


CO 


< 


CO 


< 


(Q 


< 


ca 


< 


CO 


< 


a 


iS 






■ ^ 


N 


C4 


F> 


n 


^ 


'i- 


"o 


<o 


u> 


CO 


t- 


£- 


OQ 


to 


X- 










t 





e 


g 


? 


g 


? 


£ 


f 


e 


g 


o 

»- 


£ 


o 

>• 


? 


£ 








< 


(O 


< 


CO 


< 


CO 


< 


CO 


< 


00 


< 


to 


< 


CO 


< 


Q 








" 


" 


Oi 


M 


m 


to 


"^ 


■t 


•O 


■o 


y) 


o 


t- 


c- 


w 


bo 








RESULTS OF PROfAOTIONS, J9I3-/4. 








[ 1 PRowoTtra 








■B FAILED 







FIG. 34. RELATIVE NUMBER OF PROMOTIONS AND 
FAILURES, BY GRADES. 



2VX1 SCHOOL SVKVVIY KEFOKT. 

All of the children represented in eaeh grade by the dark- 
ened area \Yill beoome '"repeatei-s" for the next half-year, pro- 
vided they remain in school. It >Yill be observed that the rel- 
ative nnmber of failnifs decreases somewhat through the 
grades, until the mimber who are not promoted to the high 
school grades is very small. This is nuquestionably dne to 
the dropping ont of the backward pupils before reaching the 
higher grades. The number retained in the tii*st grade is ap- 
pivximately 16 per cent of the total number belonging. 

Causes of Retai'datlon. The teachers were asked, in eaeh 
case of repetition or serious retardation, to make some state- 
ment relative to the probable cause. The folloA^•iug were the 
most frequently given reasons : 

1. Poor home conditions. 

2. Physical ailments. 

3. Transferring from another school. 

4. Retarded mental development. 

5. Difficulty with the English language. 

6. Lack of application. 

7. Poor attendance. 
S. Laziness. 

9. Laxe entering. 
10. Pelinquency. 

Miiny more interesting reasons were given, and while 
pi\>babl\^ in certain cases each could be justitied as a separate 
excuse, it is obvious that there is a close relation among several 
of those given here. After analyzing many cases, and inquiring 
into the exact conditions, the writer has found that, with a 
few possible exceptions, the following have produced prac- 
aically all of the retardation in. the city : 

1. Mental deficiency. 

2. Physical ailments. 

3. Poor home conditions. 

Age at entering the first grade. It is not uncommon for 
teachers and principals to assume that much of the retarda- 
tion in their i*ooms is due to the lateness with which the chil- 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 



201 



drcfi enter selioo). Tluit 111 is is not, iin important cause, eon- 
sidering the larj^e amount of retardation, may be easily proven. 
Children in Salt Lake City commonly enter the first f?rade at 
the age of six years, some enter even earlier, and, although 
some enter later, the number whose retardation is the direct 
result of late entering is small. Figure 35 shows the distribu- 
tion of the entering ag(;s. Nearly 70 per cent have entered at 
five or six yciars, and neaj-ly 90 per cent at not later than seven 
years. 




FIG. 35. DLSTJinUJTION OF ACES AT WIirCTT FULT 

LAKE CITY CHILDREN ENTER THE FJRST 

SCHOOL GRADE. 



Other explanations for retardation. "]*oor home condi- 
tions" is one of the most common reasons given by teachers 
to account for a child's retardation, or his slowness in school. 
In some cases this is beyond a doubt a valid explanation. This 
is especially true where children are needed for long hours of 
work out of school, or where there is drunkenness, immorality, 
and other forms of social degeneracy which would cause dis- 
couragement and even contempt for school. There are, how- 
ever, relatively few such homes in Salt Lake City, One in- 
stance of the kind was noted, but the amount of mental de- 
ficiency in the family would easily account for the conditions. 



202 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

"DifSciilty with the English language" is also a common 
answer. Since, however, the proportion of foreign persons in 
this city is so very small, and most of these being from North- 
em Europe, this can seldom account for slow progress. Fur- 
ther, many cases are on record oif foreign children of normal 
mentality who have made even better than average progress. 

Physical defects and ill health are probably more com- 
monly causes of retardation than any factor except mental 
deficiency. How the health conditions of children are related 
to school progress are discussed in another chapter. With the 
development of the system of medical inspection these causes 
can be controlled. 

Subnormal and backv^^ard children. The vast majority of 
the children who are retarded in school are making slow prog- 
ress because their intelligence is below the average for children 
of their ages. By no means, however, are all of these mentally 
defective ; children vary in mental capacity just as we all vary 
among ourselves in height, weight, strength, and ability of all 
kinds. There is thus often a degree of mental retardation 
which accounts for the retardation in school. This mental re- 
tardation is now measurable, and intelligence testing has been 
so perfected that by means of a brief examination with a series 
of psychological tests the child's mental age can be determined. 
This mental age represents the approximate level of intelli- 
gence of the child, by which he can be compared with other 
children, and his general ability determined, as far as this 
depends upon intelligence. 

Usually about 75 per cent of ordinary school children have 
normal intelligence levels ; that is, their mental age is approx- 
imately the same as their actual age in years and months. The 
remainder of the children deviate from the normal either above 
or below. Those whose mental ages are decidedly above their 
actual ages 'are said to be of superior intelligence. Those who 
are slightly below are said to be dull-normal, or backward; 
while there are some whose deviation is so far below the aver- 
age that they are classified as feeble-minded. Another group. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 203 

just above the feeble-minded, consists of those who are above, 
but very little above, the lowest group. These are called 
border-line cases. 

Mental classification groups. In the mental classification 
of children, then, we have five general groups : 

1. The feeble-minded group. 

2. The border-line group. 

3. The dull-normal group. 

4. The normal group. 

5. Children of superior intelligence. 

Not every child can be definitely placed in one of these 
groups. The names used here are but arbitrary, and do not 
represent the various "types" into which it was formerly sup- 
posed that children could be classified. In fact, each group 
contains so many varying degrees of intelligence that it is 
difficult to draw a line between any two groups. The classifica- 
tion is used merely for the sake of convenience in discussing 
the several relative levels of intelligence. 

All of these groups are represented in the public schools 
of 'Salt Lake City. Children of all of these varying degrees 
were examined during the progress of the survey. It is not 
surprising that children should be greatly variable in their 
school ability and in the progress they make, When we con- 
sider that actual mental capacity is of such varying degrees. 
And it is important to remember that the degree of success or 
failure which will be met in the later life of these children is 
largely dependent upon these levels of intelligence. 

Children examined by the intelligence tests. A number of 
children were examined duricg the survey, and their mental 
ages determined. Records were also obtainable of children 
who had been examined by school principals and the psychol- 
ogist in charge of the ungraded school. Enough records were 
obtained so that the mental ages of about 120 children were 
secured. The children selected for examination were of three 
groups : 

1. Those of supposedly normal intelligence. 



20i SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

2. Those of superior ability. 

3. Those who were backward iu their work. 

The children selected by their teachers as being of normal 
intelligence usually tested approximately normal. In one 
case, a child who was thought to be normal was found to be 
somewhat mentallj^ retarded, his quickness and alertness hav- 
ing misled persons in estimating his intelligence. In another 
case, a child supposedly no brighter than the average was 
found to be decidedly above the average for her age. These 
examples illustrate how the teacher may sometimes be mistaken 
in a child's mental capacity, and these mistakes sometimes 
lead to the misplacing of children in school. Not infrequently 
teachers of many years" experience will make such errors. On 
the whole, however, the teacher is better able to judge the 
intelligence of her pupils than any one else, except the psychol- 
ogist, or one who is capable of giving intelligence tests. Teach- 
ers rarely make a mistake in selecting a child of superior intel- 
ligence, and almost never is a child found to be normal whom 
the teacher thinks is sub-normal. 

Since mistakes do occur, however, it is best not to trust the 
judgment of any person who is not a psychologist, and even he 
will make use of what is known as the Scale for Measuring In- 
telligence before making any statement as to the mental level 
of the child. 

The measuring scale used. In making the examinations, 
use was made of the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon 
Measuring Scale of Intelligence. This consists of a series of 
psychological tests which have been arranged in such order 
that from the number and kinds of tests which a child can pass 
the examiner can calculate the child's general level of intelli- 
gence. This scale was formulated in 190S by Dr. Biuet, a 
French psychologist, and Dr. Simon, a physician of Paris. 
Since that time many thousands of school children have been 
examined by this method, and it has been found eveiywhere 
to be surprisingly accurate and practically indispensable in 
judging intelligence. It has been successfully used with nor- 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 



205 



mal children, children of superior intelligence, and with back- 
ward and feeble-minded children and adults. It has been 
used in so many different countries, cities, and schools, and 
leading psychologists have so admired its usefulness, that 
scientific investigations have been able to revise and extend 
the scale until its value and accuracy are much greater than 
with the original set of tests devised by Binet and Simon. The 
Stanford Revision,* which was used during the survey, is the 
most carefully worked out revision which has been made up 
to the present time. 

Backward children studied. To illustrate what a serious 
problem the mental retardation of some children presents to 
the school, the distribution of 108 backward children, for whom 
records were obtained, is shown in Figure 36. 



CHILDREN 
]—Z5 



-zo 



15- 



-10- 



-J 




AGES AND MENTALASES OF 
\0S BACKWARD SCHOOL CHILDREN 
IN SALT LAKE CITY -w 



^Ty^TTPi 



3 a S C r r 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 I? 19 YEARS 



FIG. 36. ACTUAL AND MENTAL AGES COMPARED FOR 
A GROUP OF RETARDED PUPILS. 



*The work of Dr. Lewis M. Terman. This revision, and a manual 
for lis use, will shortly appear in print. 



206 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

The area enclosed by the heavy line and shaded shows 
the distribution of the ages of these 108 children. The young- 
est is 7 years, while the oldest is 19. The dotted line encloses 
the area which represents the distribution of the mental ages 
of these same 108 children. The youngest mental age is 3 
years, while the oldest is 13 years. Had a group oif normal 
children been thus arranged, the dotted line would be super- 
imposed upon the heavy line, and the area of mental age would 
be the same as that of actual age. The median mental age of 
this group is 9 years, while the median actual age is 12. Thus 
there is a general retardation of 3 years, or 25 per cent. 

In some individual cases, the retardation is much more than 
3 years. For example, the child who tested 3 years mentally in 
this case is actually 9 years of age, and thus his retardation is 
more than 66 per cent. Such a child, of course, is of extremely 
low intelligence, and does not belong in any public school, but 
should be placed in an institution for the feeble-minded. When 
the State of Utah builds such an institution, or colony, the 
teachers in the public schools wall not be burdened with chil- 
dren who are so helpless. Very fortunately, there are but 
few such low grade children in the public schools of Salt 
Lake City, 

Feeble-minded children. There are many children in the 
schools of this city, however, who just as properly belong in 
institutions or colonies for the feeble-minded as the one just 
mentioned, although their deficiency is proportionately so much 
less that it is not so easily recognized. For these cases the 
Intelligence Scale is of much greater importance. Ordinarily, 
children whose intelligence is found, by measurement, to be 
less than 75 per cent of their actual ages, are feeble-minded. 
This means that their intelligence, as long as they live, will 
not develop to a level much beyond that of the average child 
of 12 years. It must be remembered that this 12 year level is 
the upper limit, and that most feeble-minded persons never 
reach this level. Many of them, although they may be nearly 
normal physically, have never developed mentally beyond the 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 207 

10, 9, 8, or 7 year level. Such persons cannot, of course, be 
expected ever to be able to compete in life with normal per- 
sons, or even to make a living for themselves if left unassisted. 
Many of those who are not cared for become criminals, pros- 
titutes, paupers, or become socially degenerate in some other 
way. Among school children mental deficiency often expresses 
itself in the form of delinquency. 

These waste both the teacher's time and their own. Fee- 
ble-minded children are not always vicious. Often their tem- 
perament is such that their teachers and friends are inclined 
to overlook their mental deficiency, and good conduct and 
obedience is mistaken for intelligence. Clara F.,* for example, 
is 15 years of age. She is in the seventh grade, and has been 
making such slow progress that the teacher had become dis- 
couraged with her. She was examined, and found to have a 
mentality of IQi/o years. Because she has been a "good plod- 
der" and has presented no difficulty in discipline, she was not 
considered feeble-minded, or even much below normal. In 
fact, she has long since reached the grade of work possible for 
one of her level of intelligence, and it is a waste of time and 
an injustice to the child to keep her in the regular school any 
longer. Much of the teacher's time has been taken from the 
already too large class in futile attempts to teach her things 
which she cannot learn, and which would be of little use to 
her if she could retain them. Clara should be in an institution 
or colony for the feeble-minded, where she could be taught at 
least how to do housework of the simpler kinds, where she 
will not be a burden upon those who have her in charge, and 
where normal children will not be neglected in order that she 
may be instructed. Numerous other examples just as striking 
have been found in the schools. Some of them, of whom space 
does not permit further description, are as follows : 

George B. ...Age 15, Mentality 8. In Grade 4. 
Francis A. . .Age 10, Mentality 8. In Grade 1. 
Amy C Age 15, Mentality Qi/o. In Grade 7. 

*Names used here are fictitious. 



208 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Verna K Age 12, Mentality 10. In Grade 3. 

Everett D. ..Age 13, Mentality 91/2. In Grade 4. 

Ernest L Age 121/2, Mentality 9. In Grade 2. 

All of these children are either feeble-minded or border- 
line eases, and none of them should be in the regular grades 
with normal children. 

Number of such found in every city. It is generally esti- 
mated that in any city the number of feeble-minded children is 
between 2 and 3 per cent of the entire school enrollment. Prob- 
ably the latter number is a safer estimate. Although there is 
reason to believe that the average intelligence among the pop- 
ulation of Salt Lake City may be slightly above that of the 
average city, on account of the freedom from slums, etc., yet 
the number of feeble-minded children in the city cannot be 
much below 3 per cent of the school enrollment. The number 
is somewhat increased by the lack of state facilities for the 
care of mental defectives. 

"We may be reasonably certain that there are not less than 
600 children in the public schools who are mentally retarded 
to such a degree that no amount of teaching can ever make 
them normal. In addition to these there are many more chil- 
dren who are mentally retarded to a less degree, but are still 
so far from average-normal that in classes with normal chil- 
dren they are likely to receive little benefit. It is these chil- 
dren who are the direct cause of much of the school retardation 
in the city. 

Apparently the problem has been recognized, and an 
attempt has been made to solve it. For this attempt, although 
inadequate, the city is to be commended. Provision for back- 
ward children has been made (1) by the Ungraded School, and 
(2) by ungraded classes. 

The UngTaded School. This now occupies one of the oldest 
school buildings in the city. The school consists of five 
teachers and a principal. There are five rooms, and about 90 
children were belonging at the time of the survey. The usual 
enrollment is about 100. The building is very poorly lighted. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 209 

and the heating and ventilation facilities are worse than should 
be tolerated in any school. The principal's office occupies a 
basement room, which can be directly entered only through a 
back door. The conditions in the school rooms are no better. 
The property on which the building stands is of relatively high 
value, however, and since with adequate transportation facil- 
ities the location is of secondary importance, it is probable 
that the land could be sold at a figure which would apply sub- 
stantially toward a new building on 'a less expensive site. 

The children are given individual attention, especially in 
the subjects in which they seem to be the most backward. The 
principal is a university graduate in psychology, and is qual- 
ified to give mental tests and to judge the intelligence of the 
children. During the past four years he has made about 90 
of such examinations. He is frequently called upon to examine 
children in the regular schools to determine their degree of 
defectiveness or backwardness, and to advise principals and 
teachers concerning the proper placing of certain children who 
offer difficulties of instruction or discipline. 

Mistaken aim of the unladed school. For the most part, 
the teachers in the ungraded school are energetic and inter- 
ested. None have had special training for this work, how- 
ever, although some are contemplating this for the present 
summer. Little manual training is taught, and the chief aim 
has been to instruct children in the subjects in which they are 
the most deficient, with a view to their being placed again in 
the grades. 

To make this the aim of the ungraded school is misleading. 
Although it is a splendid thing for children who are slightly 
back in arithmetic, for example, to be specially assisted in mak- 
ing up their particular difficulties, this is not what the un- 
graded school should be doing. Fully 75 per cent of the pupils 
in the school are mentally so far below normal that they will 
not be able, even with this special instruction, to "make up" 
their grades, and continue thereafter to make normal progress. 
Practically all of those now enrolled in the school, and many 



210 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

more who should be enrolled when provisions are made for a 
larger ungraded school, are in need of continued special class 
work. Teachers and principals should not be deluded by 
thinking that children are normal because the special class has 
improved them. 

Proper training for such pupils. When the State Legis- 
lature makes adequate provision for the care of the feeble- 
minded, the public schools will 'be relieved of many of their 
defective children. This it should do without further delay. 
There will still be need for the special school, however. Prob- 
ably none of the border-line and dull-normal cases will be 
removed, and there will always be many of the higher grade 
feeble-minded children who must be trained in the public 
schools. There s'hould be a special school of not less than 15 
teachers, equipped not for average children, as in other schools, 
but especially for children whose minds have not developed 
normally. This should include, first of all, material for manual 
work. In no other line can defective children, be trained to 
any degree of usefulness. It is folly to waste much of their 
time in reading, arithmetic, etc., beyond the work of the lower 
grades. While it may happen frequently that feeble-minded 
children can retain for a short time some of the things they 
have been taught in these subjects, it is far from efficiency to 
learn things which can never be used. Backward and feeble- 
minded children can be trained in manual work, however, and 
in some cities and institutions much has been done in this line 
which has added to their happiness and usefulness. 

The so-called ungraded rooms. Another method which 
has been used in dealing with retarded pupils is that of the 
ungraded room. There are at present six teachers giving full 
time in ungraded rooms. Four teachers of domestic science 
are giving approximately half-time to this work. In several 
schools, the ungraded room has been discontinued for financial 
reasons. 

In reality, these rooms are not ungraded rooms at all. 
In fact, the children who make use of them are enrolled in the 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 211 

regular grades, and one or more periods of thirty minutes each 
are given to their special instruction in the subject or subjects 
which present the most difficulty. A large number of children 
can be ''coached" in this manner, and one teacher reported a 
class of 70 pupils per day. 

The following is the daily schedule of one of these classes : 
9:00 to 9:30 Arithmetic 7B. 
9:30 to 10:00 Reading 2B. 
10 :00 to 10 :30 Arithmetic 5B. 
10:30 to 10:45 Recess. 
10 :45 to 11 :00 Reading and Phonics 3B. 
11:00 to 11:30 Reading 6B. 
11 :30 to 12 :00 Grammar 7A. 
1:00 to 1:40 Geography 7B. 
1:40 to 2:10 Arithmetic 6B. 
2:10 to 2:20 



2:20 to 2:30 Recess. 

2:30 to 3:05 Grammar 8B. 

3:05 to 3:30 Grammar 9 and 7. 

3 :00 to 3 :30 Reading 4A. 

In reality "Batavia" rooms. This form of special instruc- 
tion is similar to what is known as the "Batavia plan." While 
this work is of extreme importance to every school, and fur- 
nishes much relief to teachers, it is by no means a correct sub- 
stitute for the special class for backward children. Quite 
naturally, children who are backward or sub-normal mentally 
are most commonly sent to these classes, and the writer has 
observed many feeble-minded children who have been sent to 
these Batavia teachers with the expectation that they could 
discover in what subjects they were in need of the greatest 
attention' In one case, the teacher pointed out a boy who 
has been retained in one of these classes for two years. In 
any school, even if made up entirely of normal children, there 
is a place for this work ; but it is unfortunate that it has been 
instituted instead of the much needed special rooms, where 
the teacher may devote all her time to children who are men- 



212 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

tally sub-normal. In nearly every school in the city there is 
need for such a class. 

As in the ungraded school, none of the teachers of these 
rooms have had special training, and it is not surprising that 
there is no one in such schools who can recognize feeble- 
minded children. None have made use of tests for this pur- 
pose. This, of course, is a serious handicap in the conducting 
of an ungraded room, or any form of special class work. 

What is needed. To what extent the school retardation 
has been affected by the presence of sub-normal children cannot 
be determined to an exact figure. To do this, it would be 
necessary to examine the mental condition of each retarded 
pupil, and to inquire into the other conditions which might 
have been responsible for his slow progress. Many cities are 
introducing research departments where this and other impor- 
tant work can be carried on. Little of value can be deter- 
mined except by continued scientific investigation. 

About 9 per cent, or 1570 pupils in the city schools, are 
repeating their grades one or more times. This means that the 
city is expending more than $90,000 per year for repeated in- 
struction. Calculating on the basis of the amount paid each 
year for teachers' salaries alone, $40,000 per year is paid di- 
rectly for this repeated instruction. This sum represents the 
salaries of 50 teachers at $800 each. This $40,000 would pro- 
vide : 

15 teachers in a special school; 

15 additional teachers in ungraded rooms ; each receiving 
a salary of not less than $1200. These 30 teachers could re- 
lieve the regular classes of 450 sub-normal children, allowing 
each teacher 15 special pupils. The value of this to the schools, 
and to the happiness and usefulness of these pupils, need not 
be reiterated. To say nothing of these, the change is justified 
from a purely business standpoint. 

The principal of such a school. The principal of the un- 
graded school should be a psychologist. This the city has 
already recognized. He should have jurisdiction, not only 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 213 

over the ungraded school of 15 teachers, but over all of the 
special class work in the city. In: the latter, he would have 
the co-operation of the school principals. He should be given 
a clerical assistant, to relieve him of routine office duties, in 
which otherwise he would lose much valuable time, and should 
devote at least one-half of each day to research work and 
investig-ation into such problems as retardation. Under his 
direction all retarded and greatly accelerated pupils should be 
examined, and the records permanently kept in the laboratory, 
which should be provided in the ungraded school. In a single 
year records of the intelligence of the 600 sub-normal children 
in the schools could be made. The amount of retardation could 
be greatly reduced, by the proper placing of pupils, and by the 
additional assistance rendered to the health officers in the 
diagnosis of cases. 

Ungraded rooms for the different schools. In each school 
provision should be made for at least one real ungraded room. 
This is particularly important in planning new school buildings. 
The following are the salient points in the construction of a 
standard ungraded room.* 

1. The room should be well lighted and ventilated. 

2. Not more than 15 children should be provided for. 

3. The room should be approximately 30x40 feet in size. 

4. The windows should be adjustable, so that an open-air 
room can be made. 

5. The walls should be of a neutral tint. 

6. Instead of school desks, movable tables and chairs of 
various sizes should be provided. 

7. There should be 8 work benches for manual training. 

8. There should be cupboards and cases for the display 
and keeping of work. 

9. The walls should be provided with plenty of black- 
boards, built low, so they can be reached by the smallest pupils. 

10. A bathroom or shower should adjoin the room. 

11. There should be equipment for training in practical 



♦Goddard, School Training of Defective Children. N. Y., 1914. 



214 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

housework. This should be the essential equipment of a home, 
including a bed, stove, dishes, etc. 

12. Books, play apparatus, etc., should be available. 

It is obvious that such a room is not meant for the teach- 
ing of reading, writing, arithmetic, etc., except in an inci- 
dental manner. Trained teachers in charge of these rooms, 
under the supervision of an expert, will know to what extent 
the minds of the children are capable of each kind of work, 
and the instruction of each child will follow accordingly. As 
has already been pointed out, the greatest success with sub- 
normal children has been obtained by placing emphasis upon 
manual work of a practical sort. 

Exceptional Children. Although the greater portion of 
this chapter has been devoted to the problem of backward and 
sub-normal children, there are other ways in which children 
may vary from the average, and for these special attention is 
just as necessary. Often the importance of the problem of 
retardation overshadows this fact, and these children are neg- 
lected. 

There are many children whose minds have developed more 
rapidly than those of average children, and whose intelligence 
is such that they are capable of work which ordinary children 
cannot do at the same age. In some cases such children have 
been .promoted to a grade or more beyond that in which they 
would be according to actual age. Some have been allowed to 
"skip" grades. Often the intelligence of these children is 
underestimated, and still more often teachers and parents are 
prevented by tradition and custom from allowing them to go 
beyond the work which seems to be suitable to their ages. On 
the other hand, parents not infrequently insist that a child is 
capable of advancement, when the school records plainly show 
that he is not. 

Here again psychological tests are of great assistance. 
With the child's mental age known, teachers, parents, and 
principals will not need to rely upon personal opinion, and the 
child's course can be 'based upon scientific facts. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 215 

Tjrpical cases found. The following cases are representa- 
tive of school children of superior mentality. Both of these, 
and many others, were examined during- the progress of the 
survey. 

Lucile E. — Age 13. Mentality about 16. Is in the 
seventh grade. With special instruction for a time could 
be doing the work of the second year in high school. 
Temperamentally pleasant, and much devoted to her work. 
In good health, not nervous, and offers no special diffi- 
culty, except that the work of the seventh grade is too 
easy for her. Is from a home where less than average 
opportunities are available. Father "does not believe" in 
high school training, and expects to remove Lucile from 
school when she has completed the eighth grade. 

George N. — Age 9. Mentality about 13. Is in fourth 
grade. From an average home. Has been well trained 
in politeness and obedience. Could be doing the work of 
which any normal child of 12 or 13 years would be capable. 
In excellent physical condition. 

We little know what immense possibilities lie in these and 
other gifted children. Many cases of this kind are on record, 
and too often insufficient attention is given in the conserva- 
tion of these possibilities. In some instances, capabilities just 
as remarkable have been found, but in some special direction, 
such as music, art, etc. It is of the greatest importance that 
children who early in life show such ability should be educated 
according to their levels of intelligence, rather than be held 
back with other children of the same age. 

The problem of delinquency. This is fundamentally a 
problem for the public schools to handle. Many boys and 
girls are now in our reformatories and juvenile institu- 
tions who might have been saved through vocational guidance 
and other provisions which the public schools sliould have 
made for them. It is generally recognized that the feeble- 
minded child is a potential delinquent. The minds of these 
children will always remain like those of young children, and 



216 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

consequently they will have neither the a'bility nor the desire 
to resist the temptations which cause their downfall. Even 
some children of normal mentality are weak in will power or 
have emotional characteristics which lead to crime. 

In 1910 there were 25,000 children in institutions for de- 
linquents. Of these, 14,000 had been committed in less than 
one year. Not less than one-third of these are feeble-minded; 
and not less than one-half are mentally retarded to such a 
degree that this deficiency would account for their delin- 
quency. There are fully 12,000 who do not belong where they 
have been placed, and for whom no form of punishment can 
be of great benefit. Many, when released, will again enter 
lives of crime, and will spend many of their later years in 
prison. Hence the responsibility of the public school in the 
classification and guidance of children who exhibit these ten- 
dencies. 

Smnmaiy of recommendations. As a result of the studies 
recorded in this chapter the following recommendations are 
made : 

1. That a new special school, for ungraded work, be 
erected. This should contain not less than 15 rooms, and 20 
would be a better number. 

2. That the principal of the ungraded school be given 
such clerical assistance as to permit him to direct the work of 
the psychological laboratory, and to have direction over all 
ungraded rooms in the city. 

3. That there be established not less than 15 ungraded 
rooms in regular schools, in addition to the Batavia teaching 
Avhich is now provided for. It would be still 'better if at least 
one such room were provided in connection with each large 
school in the city. 

4. That trained teachers be secured for this ungraded 
school work. 

5. That no ungraded room contain more than 15 pupils 
permanently enrolled. 



PROGRESS OF THE CHILDREN. 217 

6. That in providing for ungraded rooms, especially in 
new buildings, the plan of the standard room, as outlined by 
Dr. Groddard, be followed as closely as possible. 

7. That special classes, wherever practicable, be estab- 
lished for gifted children, or that some plan he adopted by 
means of which they may make more rapid progress through 
the course of study. 

8. That greater attention be given to the problem of 
children who show evidences of becoming socially undesirable. 



PART III 
Buildings and Health 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 221 

CHAPTER X. 
THE SCHOOL PLANT. 

(Terman.) 

The present buildings. Of the 34 buildings at present in 
use, 30 belong to an obsolete type of school architecture. The 
heating, lighting and ventilation of most of these buildings are 
unsatisfactory. There are not enough class rooms to accom- 
modate the children. Dark, damp, and dingy basement rooms 
which are totally unjfit for human occupancy are used as class 
rooms, as are also poorly lighted and ill-ventilated halls. Many 
of the rooms used for domestic science are objectionable, both 
from the hygienic and the aesthetic point of view. There are 
hardly any assembly rooms. There are no school baths in 
any primary or grammar grade school. The toilet arrange- 
ments are in many cases unsanitary and unsightly. The jan- 
itor service is partly good and partly bad. A few of the sites 
are not well suited to school purposes, and in the case of more 
than half the schools the playground space is extremely inade- 
quate. These and other items relating to the school plant war- 
rant individual treatment in this report. 

The school sites. A school is not properly located when it 
is in too close proximity to railroads, car lines, streets, noisy fac- 
tories,, saloons, or other otherwise morally objectionable places. 
It is also necessary, in selecting a school site, to take account 
of possible shifts of population and of possible objectionable 
changes which may later take place in the environment. Above 
all, playgrounds of adequate size should be obtained before the 
increase in value of the surrounding real estate renders this 
prohibitive. 

Little adverse criticism can be made as to the location of 
the school sites except in two or three cases. Two railroad 
lines within a block of the Lincoln building detract from this 



222 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

site, and a few others are located rather closer to street car 
lines than is desirable. 

There is no school located where the surrounding popula- 
tion seems likely to decrease to a point which would render 
the building or any part of it unnecessary. Unfortunately, 
however, there has not always been sufficient foresight in 
anticipating the increase of needs incident to the growth of 
population. Many of the school sites are so small as to make 
it impossible to locate the buildings the requisite distance from 
the street, or to provide playground facilities for the children. 

Size of school grounds. In a city no larger and no more 
crowded than Salt Lake City a school site ought to contain not 
less than 200 square feet for each child. This rule will require 
about five acres for a site which may reasonably be expected 
sometime to accommodate 1000 to 1200 pupils. In order to 
provide for possible increases in attendance and enlargement 
oif buildings, every new school site provided ought to contain, 
if possible, not less than five acres. The very minimum which 
should be regarded permissible even in a large city is 100 
square feet of a playground space for each child. Even the city 
of London has made this amount the legal minimum. 

The figures of Table 39 show how far many of the Salt 
Lake City school grounds fall below the minimum. The figures 
given are based on the entire area of the school site, inclusive 
of the ground on which the building is located. If the area of 
the building had been deducted the figures would have been in 
most cases very greatly reduced. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 223 

TABLE NO. 39. 
SIZE OF PRESENT SCHOOL SITES. 

Group I. Less than 100 sq. ft. per child. 

Sq. ft. 

School. Enrollment. per child. 

Emerson 1,090 40 

Grant 783 69 

Fremont 302 74 

Oquirrh 724 75 

Longfellow 352 77 

Lafayette 853 84 

Lowell 615 88 

Franklin 615 93 

Wasatch 780 95 

Hamilton 710 96 

Total enrollment in this group, 6824. 

Group 11. 100 to 130 sq. ft. p€r child. 

Sq. ft. 

School. Enrollment. per child. 

Webster 719 102 

Sumner 756 108 

Lincoln 450 112 

Forest 560 129 

Jefferson 760 129 

Poplar Orove... 417 130 

Total enrollment of Group II, 3662. 

Group III. 170 to 200 sq. ft. per child. 

Sq. ft. 

School. Enrollment. per child. 

Jackson 802 171 

Riverside 820 189 

Irving 291 189 

Monroe 320 200 

Total enrollment of Group III, 2233. 



224 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE NO. 39, CONTINUED. 
Group IV. Above 200 sq. ft. per child. 

School. Enrollment. 

Washin^on 721 

Onequa 436 

Ensign 421 

East High 1,299 

Bonneville 105 

Hawthorne 538 

Bryant 30O 

West High 870 

Whittier 750 

Twelfth 96 

Training 362 

Total enrollment of Group IV, 5668. 



Sq. ft. 
per child. 

223 

256 

517 

385 

403 

404 

412 

500 

522 

567 
1,037 



"6]% 




OVER 200 5QJT. PERCHILD 
170 -ZOO SQ.FT. PER ChILD 



100-130 SQ.n. PER CHILD 



LESS TtiAN 100 SQ.riPCRCHILD 



FIG. 37. SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN HAV- 
ING PLAYGROUNDS OF VARIOUS SIZES. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 225 

The preceding" diagram shows the percentag^e distribution 
of children among the sites of these four sizes: 

It is a pleasure to note that the last three buildings erected, 
Whittier, Hawthorne, and East Hig'h, all have ample grounds. 
This is also true of the two now being^ built in the vicinity of 
East High School, but it is not true of Jefferson, which was 
erected only five years ag'O. 

Nowhere else in the school system is forethought more 
important than in the selection of well-located and ample sites, 
in anticipation of future needs. Blessings or tragedy hangs 
upon the choice. Some of the cramped sites listed above could 
not now 'be enlarged except at prohibitive cost. In the case of 
others, additions are still feasible and ought to be made at the 
earliest possible moment. 

Wa^te of space in buildings. Some or all of the class 
rooms or halls in nearly every building have an excess of floor 
space, and the ceilings of practically all the buildings are from 
1% to 21/2 feet higher than the standard. This is true to a 
certain extent even in the new buildings, barring possibly the 
East High and the Hawthorne school. The best size for a 
class room is 22x28 feet, with a 12 foot ceiling. The greatest 
size permissible is 24x30 feet, with a 13 foot ceiling. Class 
rooms of' 30x33 or 30x30, with a ceiling of 14 feet, are almost 
the rule in Salt Lake City. Measurements of the floor area of 
all the class rooms in the city, which were made by the teach- 
ers at the request of the survey, gave the facts set forth in 
Figure 38, reproduced on the following page. 

The intent of such construction was doubtless that of 
giving children and teachers ample room for carrying on their 
work. The result, however, is a building which in many re- 
spects is far from satisfactory for the work of the school. A 
class room needlessly large is more costly to heat, and usually 
not as well lighted. The children in the rear seats have to 
strain their eyes to see what is written on the blackboard, and 
the teacher has to strain her voice to make it fill the room. 
Order is more .difficult to maintain. Moreover, the large 



226 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 





,^3JI~^ 






^^^^ /^ 


^C^ 


^ 


/ A 


l^^^k^^ 


^/ 


,^1 


^^^^^^ 


"^/ 




H^^^H^^ ^P 


^/ 




^^^^^^cP 


1 




l^^^^^^^^^^l * 


\ 


•T^^^^^^^d^^^^t^^^ 


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<^ 'DS OOS-' 



FIG. 38. SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL ROOMS 
HAVING VARIOUS AREAS. 

room offers a constant temptation to enlarge classes beyond 
the point where good teaching is possible. 

The result of such, excess. The cost of such excess space 
is no mean item. A room 30x30 has nearly 50 per cent more 
floor space than the standard room of 22x28, and one of 27x30 
has an excess floor area of about 25 per cent. A room 30x30, 
with a 14 foot ceiling, has 70 per cent excess of cubical con- 
tents as compared with one which is 22x28x12 ; or an excess 
of 56 per cent as compared with one 24x28x12. The cost of 
a school room is almost (though not quite) in proportion to its 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. . 227 

cubical contents, and the cost of building 400 school rooms 
having an average excess of 30 per cent in cubical contents 
above the standard has certainly involved a waste of more 
than a half million dollars. 

The practical outcome of extravagance in space is likely to 
be the omission of much-needed special rooms and equipment, 
and we are now in better position to understand why, in the 
schools of Salt Lake City, the domestic science work is usually 
relegated to some dingy corner which is unfit for regular class 
purposes; why manual training must so often be carried on 
by artificial light; why there are no assembly rooms; why 
toilet arrangements are so inadequate and cheap ; why there 
is not a single bath or a single nurse's room in the primary 
or grammar schools; why approximately 2000 children are 
compelled to attend school in dark cellars. Reasonable econ- 
omy in school planning would have supplied most if not all 
of these unfortunate omissions. 

Much space is also wasted in halls. Instead of the stan- 
dard width of 12 to 14 feet, a width of 16 to 24 feet is found 
in a, majority of the buildings. The Washington and Lowell 
schools have each two halls approximately 24x100 feet. The 
wasted space would have given each school four or five addi- - 
tional class rooms, or a commodious assembly room. 

Lighting. Following is a statement of the cardinal laws 
of school lighting, and of the departures therefrom in the 
schools of Salt Lake City. 

1. The light should enter from one side of the class room 
only, and at the pupils' left. 

If it enters from two sides there are sure to be annoying 
cross-lights in certain parts of the room, and if there are win- 
dows in the rear the teacher is compelled to face a direct light. 
This is trying to the nerves and injurious to the health. 

The following table shows existing conditions in the Salt 
Lake City school buildings. 



228 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE NO. 40. 
THE LIGHTING OF SALT LAKE CITY SCHOOL ROOMS'. 

Lighted from left only, 96 rooms (Standard method). 

Lighted from left and rear, 250 rooms 
Lighted ifrom right and rear, 3 rooms 
Lighted from left and right, 3 rooms 
Lighted from right only, 2 rooms 

Lighted from rear only, 1 room \ All incorrectly 

Lighted on three sides 46 rooms ( lighted. 

Lighted partly from front, 39 rooms 
More than half of light from 
rear, 120 rooms 

Prom this table it is seen that less than 22 per cent of the 
rooms are lighted from the proper direction, and over 88 per 
cent are improperly lighted. Even the buildings erected four to 
five years ago (Jefferson, Poplar Grove, and the new parts of 
Riverside and Wasatch) have a large proportion of their rooms 
lighted from two sides. 68.2 per cent of all the teachers in the 
city are compelled to face light entering from the rear win- 
dows. In 27.3 per cent of the rooms, more than half the lig'ht 
enters from the rear. Questioned as to the effects on health 
resulting from facing the light, 77 teachers stated that ill 
effects had been experienced, and 15 of these stated that the 
health had been seriously injured in this way. 

It must not be inferred that the 22 per cent of rooms hav- 
ing light on the left only are properly lighted. As a matter of 
fact, hardly any of them are. Some of them are lighted from 
the north or south, some have too little window space, others 
have windows placed too far forAvard. 

2. The building should be so oriented that the windows 
of each class room are on the east or west side, not the north 
or south. Rooms lighted from the north are too dark on 
cloudy days and are less healthful than rooms which receive 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 229 

direct sunlight a part of the day. If the room is lighted from 
the south, however, the direct sunlight enters during the entire 
school day and, falling on the desks of pupils, is annoying and 
injurious to the eyes. In such cases the shades are likely to 
be drawn until the light admitted is too small in amount, and 
badly distributed. A possible exception in favor of south 
lighting may be made in the case of kindergarten rooms, but 
in no other class rooms. 

In Salt Lake City no rational attention seems to have been 
given to the matter of orientation, previous to the last three or 
four buildings erected. If anything, south lighting seems to 
have been preferred. The Washington and Lowell schools 
were evidently planned with the idea of giving the sun direct 
access to as many rooms as possible throughout the day. On 
the other hand, there are dozens of rooms in the city which 
never get a ray of direct sunlight, and some of these rooms are 
in damp basements. 

The only way to secure the proper orientation of class 
rooms is to construct long narrow school buildings, running 
north and south. Those of Salt Lake City are predominantly 
of the square type, with eight to twelve corner rooms lighted 
on one side and rear and a number of side rooms in between 
the corner rooms. The side rooms are lighted in about equal 
number from the north, east, south, or west. 

3. The window space should be between 20 per cent and 
25 per cent of the floor space. 

The following tabular statement shows the number of 
rooms having various percentages of window space as com- 
pared with floor space. 



230 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

19 have less than 10 per cent ) 

54 have between 10 and 15 per cent >• Below standard. 
154 have between 15 and 20 per cent ) 

139 have between 20 and 25 per cent Standard 

72 have 25 per cent or more \ Above standard. 

The following drawing shows the same facts graphically. 




FIG. 39. SHOWING PROPORTION OF CLASSROOMS HAV- 
ING SUFFICIENT AND INSUFFICIENT WINDOW 
AREA IN PROPORTION TO FLOOR SPACE. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 231 

While these figures show that a numher of rooms are 
seriously deficient in lig-hting area, it is seen that nearly half 
are generously supplied with windows. Taken alone, how- 
ever, these figures are misleading. A room may have more 
than the standard amount of window space and still be badly 
lighted, owing to such factors as the improper location of win- 
dow®, north orientation, unsuitable colors for walls and ceiling, 
the improper use of window shades, or the presence of trees, 
buildings, or other light obstructions near the windows. These 
are the critical factors in the school lighting of Salt Lake City, 
and in by far the larger proportion of rooms they more than 
offset the advantages of liberal window space. No fewer than 
146 of the 440 rooms, or 33 per cent, have trees, walls, or other 
light obstructions within 50 feet of the windows and as high 
as the tops of the windows. This is also true for 72 of the 154 
rooms which have a window area below standard. 

4, The windows should not extend lower than 314 feet 
from the floor, and they should reach within a few inches of 
the ceiling. They should begin within 18 inches of the rear 
end of the left wall, and approach no closer than 7 or 8 feet 
to the front of the room. 

The purpose ol these rules is to control the direction from 
which the light shall come. The only light which does any 
good is that M'iiich strikes the pupil's book, and at an angle 
not too acute. Light which strikes the pupil's eyes directly is 
not only of no value, but actually prevents clear vision. 

In this city the bottom of the windows is usually about 
the right height from the floor, but there is often too much 
dead wall space above the top. A far worse fault, however, 
and a more common one, is the improper distribution of win- 
dows along the side of the room. Even in the few rooms which 
are lighted entirely from the left there is ordinarily too much 
dead wall space behind the back window, and too little in 
front of the front window. That is, the window area as a 
whole is placed too far forward. Architects are prone to do 
this in order to secure symmetry, but it should in no case be 



232 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

permitted. Even the last buildings built in 'Salt Lake City 
have this fault in practically every room. In many rooms the 
lighting would be better if the front window were kept perma- 
nently shaded. 

6. The windows should be separated by mullions not 
much more than eight inches wide. This is to prevent trouble- 
some wedges of shadow caused by the dead space between the 
windows. The rule is broken in nearly every school room of 
the city. Often the wall space between the windows is three 
to five feet wide, and the pupils who sit in the shadows thus 
produced are greatly handicapped. 

7. The color of the walls should be a light buff or a very 
light green, and that of the ceiling should be white or an 
extremely light cream. 

The reason for this rule is ob\4ous. Dark walls and ceil- 
ings absorb the light instead of reflecting it upon the desks. A 
very light buff reflects nearly twice as much light as a medium 
shade of green. 

The wall and ceiling colors prevailing in Salt Lake City are 
several shades too dark. Many a room which would be other- 
wise reasonably light and inviting is given a dark, dismal, and 
cheerless aspect. This effect is often enhanced by blackened 
streaks oif dirt and smoke which have come from the inlet 
ducts of the ventilating system. Five minutes in some of 
these worst rooms is positively depressing. 

A serious mistake has been made in adopting a uniform 
color scheme for all the schools. Badly lighted rooms should 
have walls and ceiling practically white. Many of the base- 
ment rooms and others which are objectionable as regards 
lighting could have their light almost doubled by proper color 
treatment. It is strongly urged that practically all the rooms 
in the city, except in the latest schools, be re-tinted at once, 
and under the direction of someone who understands the needs 
of a class room. 

8. Window shades, when used at all, should be trans- 
lucent, and their use should be regulated by definite rules to 
be followed by all the teachers. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 



233 



Shades are necessary for south windows, but should ordi- 
narily not be permitted in rooms depending solely on north 
light ; nor are they seriously needed on east or west windows. 
If present they are often drawn over windows which ought to 
be left unobstructed, hence the need for rules to regulate their 
use. 

In this city the shades are uniformly bad, all being opaque, 
single, and fastened at the top o"! the window. They can not 
be drawn, even part way, without cutting off the best light of 
the room, namely, that which comes from the upper part of 




FIG. 40. THE ' ' BISHOP HARMAN ' ' PHOTOMETER, USED 

IN THE EXAMINATION OF THE LIGHTING 

OF SCHOOL ROOMS. 



234 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



the window. What is worse, the teachers gave no evidence of 
having had any instruction in regard to the proper use of 
shades. In many rooms which would be too dark under the 
best conditions, and where no excuse exists for cutting off any 
of the light at any time, shades were found drawn clear to the 
bottom of the windows. In one room, about 16x30 feet in size, 
having only two windows and those directly behind the backs 
of the pupils, one window was found entirely darkened on a 
cloudy day. 

Light tests. Though the facts set forth above ought to 
be convincing, we are able to add to those the results of light 
tests in 32 rooms. A ''Bishop Harma'n" photometer was used. 
It is a photometer of recent English make, and is well adapted 
for the purpose. The following table gives the results of the 
tests made. 

TABLE NO. 41. 

SHOWING RESULTS OF LIGHT TESTS ON DARKEST 

DESK OF 32 CLASSROOMS. 



Name 

of 
School 



No. of 


Time 


Room 


of day 


6 


11:15 


7 


11:20 


1 


11:25 


5 


11:30 


1 


2:30 


5 


3:00 


c 


3:10 


9 


2:00 


5 


2:10 


2 


2:00 


5 


2:10 


7 


2:15 



Weather 
conditions 



Light in foot candles 

(min. permissible is 9 

feet candles) 



Lincoln 

Lincoln ..... 

Lincoln 

Lincoln 

Riverside . . . 
Webster .... 

Webster 

Grant 

Grant 

Longfellow . 
Longfellow . 
Longfellow . . 
Longfellow .. 
Franklin . . . 
Franklin 
Franklin . . . 
Franklin 
Poplar Grove 

Bryant 

Bryant 

Bryant 

Lowell 

Monroe 

Monroe 

Monroe 

Lafeyette . . . 
Lafayette . . . 
Lafayette . . . 
Lafayette . . . 
Jackson . .No? b 
Fremont . . 



12 


2:20 


3 


3:00 


1 


3:10 


2 


3:15 


4 


3:20 


3 


3:30 


3 


11:30 


5 


11:40 


7 


11:45 


3 


11:00 



I 29 

|As'ly| 



36 
10 
1 
20 
22 
asemt 
No? 



3:40 
3:45 
3:50 
3:15 
3:20 
3:25 
3:30 
10:00 
11:00 



partly cloudy 

partly cloudy 

partly cloudy 

partly cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

cloudy 

partly cloudy 

partly cloudy 

partly cloudy 

partly cloudy 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 

clear 



5.5 

4.5 

2. 

3.5 

3. 

2.5 

8. 

2. 

2.5 

2.5 

4. 

1.5 

2. 

1.5 

2 

lis 

2. 

6. 

4.5 

4. 

4.5 

3.5 

5. 

1. 

1.5 

2.5 

3. 

4. 

3.5 

2. 

3.5 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 235 

The above tests were nearly all made while classes were 
in session. Window shades were left as they were found. The 
rooms selected for the tests are among the darkest in the city, 
but they do not include anything like all of those which are 
very badly lighted. About 10 per cent of the schoolrooms in 
the city use artificial light a part of the time, and seven rooms 
all the time. The method of artificial lighting is unsatisfactory. 
The lights are not numerous enough and they are usually not 
properly distributed. Often they are placed so that the light 
strikes the pupil directly in the face. The light shades are also 
unsatisfactory. If the walls and ceilings were of a lighter color 
it would perhaps be preferable to use the indirect system 
where artificial lighting is necessary. 

Heating: AVhile the- heating plants in general use would 
seem to be well suited to the climate and the type of school 
buildings, there are individual rooms in many buildings which, 
according to the statements of principals and teachers, are not 
properly heated. The following are some of the chief com- 
plaints voiced: Not enough heat (Monroe, Franklin, Lincoln, 
Freemont and AVest High) ; heat not well distributed (Ham- 
ilton, Irving, Lowell and ^Sumner) : heat especially unsatisfact- 
ory in basement (Franklin). Other complaints came from 
Bonneville, Jackson, Longfellow, Twelfth and East High. 

Complaints based on the every-day experience of princi- 
pals and teachers do not, of course, give us the facts about 
the system which a heating engineer would want to know, 
but they do indicate in a general way whether faults exist. 
Only extended observation and tests by a qualified expert 
would give the remedy in each case. 

The best test of whether a heating plant is working sat- 
isfactorily is the simple one of making temperature records 
in each room of a building at successive hours of the school 
day. During the months of November and December, 1914, 
and January, 1915, the school nurses of Salt Lake City re- 
corded thermometer readings in nearly all the rooms below the 
high Schools. The temperature of each room that had a ther- 



236 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

mometer was recorded three different times, once in November, 
once in December, and again in January. In all, 1157 records 
were made. These were placed at the disposal of the survey 
staff by the board of health, and their results are summarized 
in the following table : 



TABLE NO. 42. 

TEMPERATURES FOUND IN CLASSROOMS. 

Readings below 60 degrees 1-1 or 1 per cent 

Readings either 60 or 61 degrees 25 or 2 per cent 

Readings either 62 or 63 degrees 56 or 4.8 per cent 

Readings either 64 or 65 degrees 109 or 9 per cent 

Readings either 66 or 67 degrees 160 or 13 per cent 

(Standard) readings either 68 or 69 degrees 343 or 29 per cent 

Readings either 70 or 71 degrees 248 or 21 per cent 

Readings either 72 or 73 degrees 113 or 9 per cent 

Readings either 74 or 75 degrees 61 or 5 per cent 

Readings either 76 or 77 degrees 14 or 1 per cent 

Readings either 78 or 79 degrees 7 or .6 per cent 

Readings either 80 or above 7 or .6 per cent 

If we call 68 to 69 degrees standard, it is seen that only 
29 per cent of the records are entirely satisfactory. If we de- 
fine standard as everything in the range from 66 degrees to 
71 degrees, inclusive, we have 63 per cent of the records sat- 
isfactory. Even on this liberal basis, considerably more than 
a third of the rooms were improperly heated at the time the 
records were taken, and ^v'hat was true on those days doubt- 
less holds for most of the other days of the school year. 
Members of the surv^ey staff repeatedly entered school rooms 
which had the stifling temperature of 75 to 80 degrees. Judg- 
ing from the records, we may conclude that more than 1,200 
children (more exactly 7.2 per cent of the number attending) 
are daily subjected to suffocating temperatures above 74 
degrees. It is little wonder that 20 per cent are subject to 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 



237 



frequent colds, or that more than 8 per cent have chronic 
nose or throat trouble. (See Figure 43, page 280.) 

It is evident from the above facts that either the ther- 
mostats need some attention or else the method of their su- 
pervision by janitors ; probably both. Professional training of 
janitors and strict supervision of their work by the school 
principals would doubtless increase materially the effective- 
ness of the heating systems. 



^^jlg^^ 






>, 




//o 


i^ ^H^HnH^^IHHil 


^ 


^ /<^>?SHHHH^hHI 


^p^v 


iS" /xXxOoVI^hH^^^HI^^^^ 


\ 


^ lyy^^\/y/^I^^K^^^^KH^^^ 


\ 




1 


.•^ //>^/v'>^^?i^^^B^^^^ 


■ 


feJ^^^^SP^^ 


|o 


^ </yyyyyyyy^ 


^ 


loq 


c> rxy\/yyy'C'''yyy 


/ 


^ V>vvvvvi^vvv 


c^ 


1 




# 


/ 


*«^^$$^ 


^^ 


/<b 


sAv>>%:%>;< 


^ 


/(o 




y 


f 


oe><^ 


- — 









FIG. 41. SHOWING FREQUENCY OF DIFFERENT TEM- 
• PERATURES IN CLASSROOMS. 



238 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Ventilation. The pleunni system, aspiration, and natural 
ventilation are almost equally employed. The East High 
School has the exhaust system. Those depending entirely on 
natural ventilation are Bonneville, Irving, Jordan, Forest and 
Whittier Annexes, Lake Breeze, Twelfth, and West High 
(main building). 

Although time was not available for making tests, the 
fact was evident that the ventilation of many of the schools 
conld not be satisfactory. This is of course necessarily true 
of those buildings having only natural ventilation, and it is 
probably true of manj'- of the others. There is no satisfactory 
system of ventilation for school buildings which does not em- 
ploy some mechanical means of driving the air in as it is 
needed. The gravity system is satisfactory only when the 
temperature of the air outside the building is at least as 
low as thirty degrees. When the Aveather is warmer than 
this no gravity system ever devised will afford the desired 
circulation of air. Each child should be furnished with at 
least 2,000 cubic feet of air per hour (the standard for high 
school pupils is 2.500 cubic feet per hour), and this is of 
course just as necessary in warm as in cold weather. In 
weather which is nuieh above 'freezing, however, a building 
Avliich depends on the gravity system will have very much less 
than the amount of air renewal. The etfieiency of natural 
ventilation, which is doubtful at best, is also greatly reduced 
when the difference between the indoor and the outdoor tem- 
perature is not very great. 

Mechanical means are therefore necessary for accelerating 
the rate of air circulation. For this purpose either plenum 
or exhaust fans, or both, may be used. The exhaust system 
alone is never satisfactory, because of the impossibility of com- 
pletely controlling the source of supply of fresh air. Leakage 
into the room occurs at doors and windows, and sometimes 
through the walls. Often air is sucked into the classrooms 
from basements, toilets or other unwholesome quarters. 
Plenum fans are the only means of controlling the source of 
fresh air. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 239 

Other factors in ventilation. However, the installation 
of a plenum system does not of itself guarantee satisfactory- 
ventilation. Other factors of great importance are size and 
location of both inlet and outlet ducts, location of main in- 
take, size of fan, number, size, and location of aspiration flues, 
etc. The most common mistake is that of making the inlet and 
outlet duct for each room so small that an adequate supply of 
air cannot be furnished without being driven in at too high a 
speed, causing a draft. If the ducts are not properly located 
there is no guarantee against short-circuiting or other fail- 
ure of air circulation. If the main intake is located near the 
ground, or near a dusty street or playground, the air driven 
in is likely to be impure or dusty. The same result takes 
place if the fan room is not clean, or if it is not separated 
from the boiler room. If aspiration flues are employed these 
must be sufficiently numerous, and they must be properly 
located, high, and well heated to insure adequate circulation 
of air. 

All of the above are common faults in the ventilation 
of school buildings in Salt Lake City. In some buildings it 
is doubtful whether the mechanical system in use is very 
much more effective than natural ventilation would be. Com- 
plaints from teachers and principals come from buildings 
with various types of ventilation. Among these are Franklin, 
Fremont, Wasatch, Hamilton, Jackson, Washington, Onequa, 
Oquirrh, Sumner and West High. 

Poor ventilation common. That imperfect ventilation is 
rather widespread is also indicated by 1,090 records taken by 
the nurses, who, when making the temperature records also 
reported on the satisfactoriness of ventilation in each room. 
This was done in November, December and again in January, 
for almost every schoolroom in the eity. These records are 
based on the general impression made by the air of the rooms 
upon the nurses, and, while these are doubtless less trustworthy 
than tests would have furnished, they give at least a rough 



240 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

idea as to the quality of vetitiiation. These records show 
the ventilation as less than satisfactory in 42 per cent of the 
rooms, and bad in 8.2 per cent. 

Ventilation "good" 638, or 58.5 per cent 

Ventilation '"fair" 362, or 33.2 per cent 

Ventilation "poor" 90, or 8.3 per cent 

The choice and control of a ventilating system is of course 
bound up with the question of heating. In respect to neither 
heating nor ventilation it is not possible here to set forth in de- 
tail the methods which should be followed. Nor should this 
be necessary. A superintendent of buildings, himself an engi- 
neer, familiar wath the latest developments in this line, and 
clothed with the proper authority, could be depended upon 
both to correct the faults of the heating and ventilating sys- 
tems in use (as far as correction is possible) and to furnish 
expert advice in the planning of future buildings. It cannot 
be too strongly emphasized that these are matters for the ex- 
pert. No board of education is competent to decide questions 
either of heating or ventilation, and experience also proves 
that it is far from safe to leave the decision as to the system 
and details of arrangement entirely to the architect. 

It is recommended that in future buildings, and where- 
ever possible in old buildings, air-w^ashers be installed. The 
discolored walls of very many rooms show that dirty air is 
being forced into the buildings. Air-w^ashers are not expen- 
sive, and they prevent the breathing of much injurious dust. 
The prevalence of smoke in the atmosphere of Salt Lake City 
during certain months of the year renders their use more than 
ordinarily urgent in this city. 

It is also recommended that adequate arrangements be 
made for the humidification of the schoolroom air. At present 
no special effort is made in this line. Without proper humid- 
ifying apparatus the humidity of the air in the schoolroom 
is certain to be often as low as 25 to 30 per cent, which is 
as dry as the air of Sahara Desert. Excessive dryness of the 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 241 

air causes nervousness and restlessness, and gives rise to nose 
and throat troubles. Even plants have a hard struggle to live 
in such an atmosphere. 

Basement and hall classrooms. In Salt Lake City there 
are seventy-four basement rooms used as regular classrooms, 
besides a few others which are used for special class pur- 
poses. Halls are also utilized for classes to the equivalent of 
forty-six classrooms. If the attendance in these basement 
and hall groups averages 30, which is probably a low estimate, 
it is seen that there are not far from 2,220 children who have 
no proper accommodation. This is more than 10 per cent of the 
entire enrollment. 

AVhile it may be possible to defend the use of a few of 
the best basement rooms, such as those at the Wasatch school, 
there is no questioning the fact that most of these under- 
ground rooms are utterly unfit for use. By far the majority 
of them are dark, gloomy, damp, and ill-ventilated. Accord- 
ing to statements made by teachers and principals a number 
of them are also improperly heated. Some are so dark that 
artificial lighting is necessary, even on clear days. The amount 
of light on the darkest desk of some of these rooms was found 
by actual measurement to be less than one-fifth the minimum 
which should ever be permitted. 

It is unnecessary to argue the unfitness of such dismal 
and unhealthful cellar rooms for school purposes. A city 
which reqiTires children to attend school in such quarters in- 
curs a grave responsibility. The children enrolled in the base- 
ment rooms are largely in the first and second grades and 
the kindergarten, the very children who are most susceptible 
to injury from unwholesome physical environment. One may 
well wonder, too, whether such an environment does not have 
its subtle mental effects, and whether it tends to provoke on 
the part of children just entering school the right outlook 
upon, and the desired attitude toward, things educational. 

These should be abandoned. Steps should be taken with- 
out delay to abandon the use of nearly all of the basement 



242 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

rooms. Many of them could be made over into baths, nurse's 
rooms, toilets, etc. Some, however, are hardly fit even for 
these purposes. In future buildings no basement rooms should 
be provided which could by any possibility be used for classes, 
except, under the right conditions, rooms for manual train- 
ing or domestic science. We would emphasize the phrase 
"under right conditions." Most oi the basement rooms now 
in use are unfit even for manual or domestic work. Most are 
so thoroughly bad that it is hard to say which should be 
abandoned first, but those of the following schools are among 
the worst: Jackson, Lincoln, Franklin, Sumner, Oquirrh, 
Lowell and "Washington. Other cases, however, are almost as 
urgent. 

As already stated, forty-six class groups recite in hall- 
ways. The use of halls for class purposes is hardly less ob- 
jectionable than that of basements. Halls are less subject to 
dampness, but their lighting, heating and ventilation are often 
as bad or worse. The danger from dust in much greater, and 
the noise is likely to be disturbing. On the whole, however, 
halls 'are to be preferred to basements when it is necessary 
to choose between two such undesirable evils. 

Better than either is the portable school house. If pro- 
vided in sufficient numbers to take the place of basements, 
though, these would seriously reduce the ground area avail- 
able for play, but in themselves they are far from bad. AVhen 
the ceiling is painted white they are well lighted, and their 
ventilation can be made fairly satisfactory by means of the 
jacketed stove. Those now in use have ceilings too dark 
and a poor type of stove. Portables are likely to be uncom- 
fortably warm in warm weather, and the floors are usually 
cold in Avinter. With all of their faults, however, they are a 
great improvement over basement and hall rooms. 

School desks. The main requirements of school seating 
are: (1) that the seat should be the right height to permit 
the feet to rest easily on the floor; (2) that the desk should be 
high enough to render stooping unnecessary, and low enough 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 243 

that the arms will not he unduly elevated; and (3) that the 
seat project under the edge of the desk at two inches. There 
are other minor requirements, but these are the most essen- 
tial. 

The first two rules cannot be followed unless each room 
contains adjustable desks to the extent of about 30 per cent 
of the entire number, or at least three sizes of ordinary 
desks. It is never possible to fit all the children of a given 
room in seats of one size, because in practically every class 
the largest children are from eight inches to sixteen inches 
taller than the smallest. 

Of 440 rooms from Avhich data were secured in this city, 
284, or 86 per cent, have no adjustable desks, and only 10 
per cent have 10 or over. Even where adjustable desks have 
been supplied they are not always adjusted with the proper 
frequency and care. In 13 out of 45 rooms with adjustable 
desks the desks had not been adjusted since last December. 
At least twice a year should be the rule. In one case the prin- 
cipal was not even aware that certaim, desks were adjustable, 
and when his attention was called to the fact he was evi- 
dently surprised. The adjusting of desks seems to be left 
largely to the janitors, who, of course, know little or nothing 
■ about the requirements of school seating and are prone to 
neglect the matter. Many of the rooms lacking adjustable 
desks are equipped with desks of only one size. 

Whether the third rule is followed, namely that the seat 
should project at least two inches under the desk, depends 
entirely on the authority responsible for putting down the 
seats. It is of course as easy to set them correctly as in- 
correctly. Failure to follow the rule on this point inevitably 
causes round shoulders and cramped lungs. And yet, in Salt 
Lake City, the rule is uniformly and consistently broken. In 
more than 200 rooms visited by the writer there was hardly a 
desk correctly set. 

It is necessary to make one other criticism of the desks. 
Many of these look so old and worn that the attractiveness 



244 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

of the room is severely marred. The worst of these, unless 
they can be replaced 'by desks of a better type, ought to be 
re-finished. 

In various respects most of the desks now in use belong to 
an obsolete type. In the future purchase of desks it is urged 
that careful study be made of some of the modern types 
which are more satisfactory from the hygienic point of view. 
Though it should go without saying, it needs to be emphasized 
that cheapness in school desks is not the main desiratum. 

Blackboards. The blackboard space in practically all the 
schools is generous. The composition blackboard is the type 
in general use. This gives fairly satisfactory results if kept in 
repair, and if the room is not too damp. Except in the damp 
basement rooms, most of those seen were in reasonably good 
condition. The slate blackboard is to be preferred, but in set- 
ting it much eare is necessary in order to prevent uneven 
joints. It is also more costly. 

Blackboards should reach within 26 inches of the floor 
in the primary grades, and within 30 inches in the grammar 
grades. They were found from 4 to 6 inches too high in 52 
classrooms, and from 7 to 12 inches too high in 22 classrooms. 

Cloak rooms. Unsightly rows of coats and hats disfigure 
the halls of all the schools. In future buildings cloak rooms 
should be provided, one for each classroom. The best loca- 
tion for it is directly behind the teacher's desk. The cloak 
room should have no door entering from the hall, but should 
be connected with the classroom by two doors, one on either 
side of the teacher's desk. This arrangement permits suit- 
able control of the room by the teacher, and minimizes the 
danger of pilfering and other annoyances. The cloak room 
should of course be well lighted and ventilated. Ventilation 
can be managed by having a part of the air of the classroom 
circulate (through perforated doors) into the cloak room on 
its way to the outlet ducts. 

Special rooms. In order to be regarded as strictly mod- 
ern, a city school building should ordinarily have the follow- 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 245 

ing specially-planned rooms : An assembly room, a library, a 
rest room, a kindergarten room, a nurse's room, shower baths 
with dressing booths, and rooms for manual training, sewing, 
and cooking. An art room is also desirable. Proper provision 
should be made for these in the original plans, as the ordinary 
classroom can seldom be worked over satisfactorily into a 
special room. 

The kindergarten room (or rooms) should of course be on 
the first floor and should be extremely well lighted. A south 
exposure, though objectionable for other classrooms, is well 
adapted for kindergartens. The kindergarten (preferably 
also the first grade) should have its own toilet. 

The rooms to be used for cooking should of course be 
planned for the special equipment needed and should be bright 
and attractive. To use for this purpose a room which is dark, 
dingy, and ill-ventilated is subversive of the very purposes for 
which domestic science is taught. 

The manual training rooms should be located where the 
noise will not disturb clas,ses, and should always be well 
lighted. These should have a store room of liberal dimensions. 

The library need not be large, but it should be excep- 
tionally well lighted and attractively furnished. 

The art room should be given a north exposure, in order 
to avoid direct sunlight, but it must have a large amount of 
lighting surface. 

The nurse's room should be on the first floor, and need 
not be large. It should have abundant light, running water, 
and a built-in cabinet for the storing of first-aid material 
and other equipment. 

The assembly room is the most important part of the 
building. Its inclusion in all new buildings is one of the most 
important steps toward the "wider use of the school plant." 
Nothing else about the building so operates to bring the 
school and the home together. The total valuation of the 
school buildings and grounds of Salt Lake City is given as 
$3,041,343. This investment is productive only six hours a 



2i6 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

day for 200 days of the yoar; m- a total i>r \:200 hours por 
year. Everythinji' that proiuotos inoroa^iod \iso of the sohool 
plant oiig'ht to bo eiuH>iu'aged, and tlie assendily room oor- 
tainly belongs in this oatagory. Some of tlie most impovtant 
eonsiderations in its [danning are size, easy aeressibility, and 
safety from tire. 

Special sohooliM>oms in this eity are usually eonspimunis 
for their absence. Only a small minority of the buildings are 
provided with an assembly room. Kooms nsed for cooking, 
sewing, manual training, and library are seldom adapted to 
the purpose, and are often rooms which are too dark, damp, 
or inaccessible to be nsed for regular classes. The buildings 
constructed in the last two or three years are improveu\ents 
in this respect, but there is still not a nuinse's room in the 
city, and not a bath in the grades below the high school. Nor 
do all of the recent buildings contain an assembly room. 

Special rooms of the above types are to be regarded as 
necessities, not as luxuries. They should be included in fu- 
ture school buildings aii a mere matter of course. The ar- 
gument that they cost a gi.HHl deal of money has no weight. 
School facilities which poorer cities can and do afford are 
surely not too costly for Salt Lake City. As already shown 
this city has wasted enough money in luieconomical building 
plans to have supplied most of the special rooms needed. 

Open-air schools. Salt Lake City is one of the few cities 
of its size in the country without ai\ open-air scliool. The 
impression seems to prevail that they are unnecessary here 
because of the excellence of the climate. There is absolutely 
lu^ ground for such a view. Recent aiul wide-spread investi- 
gations justify the conclusion that in the schools of any cli- 
mate there are nunu^i'ous children with latent tnbercuU>sis, 
and many othei"s who are predisposed to it. The disease is 
rapidly coming to be looked upon as a "children's disease.*' 
one which is acquired by a large proportion of children every- 
where. There is reason to believe that a majority of the cases 
which do not become ' 'manifest" until adult life have existed 
in latent form since childhood. 



THE a(;il<)()l. I' I. A NT. 247 

Tlic |)r(»|)(»r| ion of si'lntol cliildi-cii v\'illi iiuiiiirrst liil»cfcii 
losi.s is (tl' course (•(•l;il,ivcly siiiiill, iisiially iiol, iiiorc lli;iii ;i liiilT 
of one per cent of the loliil oirolliiKMil,. I-Wcn ;il, I his rate 
t,li(! sliHCd ol' SjiII, lijikc i'My would ))(; 100. Tliciw. in lil.lh; 
<I'»nI)I. IIi;iI, (■;ircriil iiicdiciil ('X;tiiiiii;i,l,ioii id' ;ill llic school 
children would disclose enough Inherculons clnldrcn lo (ill 
three (»!• loui- open ;i,ir classes. ( lalirof/iia,, wilh a, climate 
I'ldly as unFii vorahle to tuhercnlosis hh tliat ol" Salt Lake City, 
has its open ;iir s'-hools in i-vcvy city ot any eonsidecidile si/e. 

Many eliildj'eii who ;ice not a.cl,u;dly tnlx-rcnlons would 
Ix'iiefit t^reatly from such classes. This includes ;dl who are 
ill noui'ished, Hubjeet lo colds or hromdntis, or who ;ire other- 
wise laeking in physical resiHta/nt(!. I^'aels have alre;i<ly heen 
presented wiiiefi indieate that prohahly not far Trom two 
Jliousand children in this city are physic-ally a fii'Ood d(!al he- 
low nornnd. There is little donht that the condilion of nnist 
of these; eoidd he improved hy tin; rij^'ht kind of school a,dapt;i,- 
tions in their favor. For hundreds of them, at least, the open- 
air class is tin; one remedy needed. No huildinj^- lo Ix; ereelc*! 
ill llif l'ulur(; ishould he wilhonl one or nn)r<; open ;dr class- 



School baths. The value; of sediool baths deserves es- 
pecial enij)ha.sis. Two Hliower rooms, one for hoys ami one; 
for j^irls, shoidd Ix; found in every t\e,w hinldinj^'. 'I'lmy iire 
especially neeessary in eei-tain |)arts of tin; city, ;ind if possihh; 
they should yet he installed in such sc,hools ;is tin; Kremont, 
Jaekson, Lineoln and Jtiverside. Jiasenn'ot rooms which are 
now unfortunately used as regular classrooms could l.c (itt(;d 
np for this purpose, at moderate expense;. 

School baths j)romote the health of the children, aid in 
in«tilliji{4- life-lonj^ habits of personal hyj,nene, and {?i'eatly im- 
prove the atmosphere of tin; schoolroom. 'I'h<- members of Ihe 
survey staff visited ma)iy school rooms which were; filb-d 
with sickening^ odors from unclean boelie-s. Kvcn in lln- pe)or- 

er e-ouidfie-s e)!' We'ste-rn l*hjre)j)e, v\'he;re; se-heted ee-onetmy is 



248 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

more necessary than in this country, baths are included in 
all new school buildings. 

Admirable suggestions for planning school baths are to 
be found in Dresslar's American Schoolhouses published by 
the U. S. Bureau of Education, and in School Hygiene by the 
same author (Macmillan.) Important considerations are 
good light, impervious floor, dressing booths, individual show- 
ers for the older girls, drainage, heating apparatus for con- 
trolling the temperature of the water, etc. 

Toilets, Only in the new high school are the toilets fully 
up to the standard requirements. In others of the recently 
built schools they are not bad. In most of the older build- 
ings, however, they are far from satisfactory, and the worst 
are unfit for use. Wooden partitions between urinals, cor- 
roding metal urinal troughs with low backs, toilet seats of 
only one size, inadequate number of seats and urinals, im- 
proper flushing, location in dark and ill-ventilated quarters, 
inaccessibility, inadequate supply of paper, — these are com- 
mon faults, some of which are found in almost every build- 
ing, and in certain seiiools all. The worst toilets should be 
remodeled at once. 

One of the least excusable faults is an inadequate num- 
ber of seats and urinals. There should be one seat for fifteen 
boys and one for twenty-five girls ; and there should be one 
urinal stall for twenty boys. One school, the Sumner, has 
less than a half the standard number of seats for boys, while 
several others have much less than half the required num- 
ber. 

The following table shows the number of boys per seat, 
the number of boys per urinal, the number of girls per seat, 
and the ratio of window area to floor space in both the boys' 
and the girls' toilets for each school in the city. The second 
figure in each double column shows the percentage of suffic- 
iency of the item in question. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 



249 



TABLE NO. 43. 

SEATING, LIGHTING AND TOILET FACILITIES' IN THE 

DIFFERENT SCHOOL BUILDINGS. 



NAME OP 
SCHOOL 



. aS "^ CD 

" rrl -M— I 

>,^ U ^ 

PQ PM 





>> 


aj 


>. 




»^ 


o P 






si 


O ""-I 


01 -tJ 


O <4H 


>. w 


'-^^r, 


^ 02 


^?^n 



O Ph 






bJOv 









o d 



Bonneville 

Bryant 

Emerson 

Ensign 

Forest 

Franklin 

Fremont 

Grant 

Hamilton 

Hawthorne 

Irving- 

Jackson 

Jefferson 

Lafayette 

Lincoln 

Longfellow 

Lowell 

Monroe 

Onequa 

Onequa (Annex). 

Oquirrh 

Poplar Grove 

Riverside 



Sumner 

Training 

Twelfth 

Wasatch 

Washington 

Webster 

Whittier 

E. High 

W. High 



18:138% 
19:131 
30: 83 
27: 92 
35: 71 
38: 65 
19:131 
39: 64 
24:104 
22:113 
19:131 
25:100 
19:131 
28: 89 
32: 78 
11:230 
26: 96 
32: 78 
21:119 
9:277 
30: 83 
26: 96 
23:108 

■|54: 46 
117:147 
(24:104 
122:113 
|31: 80 
|36: 69 
.|27: 92 
,|24: 62 
,114:104 



53: 37% 


18:138% 


4/5 


400% 


4/5 : 


30: 66 


15:100 


4/5 


400 


1/3 : 


90: 22 


23: 60 


1/7 


71 


1/7 : 


27: 74 


21: 71 


11/50 


110 


11/50 : 


21: 95 


35: 42 


1/18 


27 


1/11 : 


51: 41 


25: 66 


13/100 


65 


13/100 : 


19:105 


13:115 


12/197 


30 


12/197 : 


39: 51 


25: 66 


1/4 


125 


1/4 : 


59: 33 


24: 62 


1/7 


71 


1/7 : 


27: 74 


16: 93 


67/652 


50 


67/839 : 


95: 21 


19: 78 


* 




* : 


40: 50 


17: 88 


19/100 


95 


19/100 : 


21: 41 


16: 93 


1/11 


49 


1/5 : 


43: 46 


25: 66 


1/4 


120 


1/3 : 


45: 44 


28. 53 


3/10 


150 


4/10 : 


17:117 


9:166 


3/25 


60 


2/25 : 


26: 96 


25: 66 


13/100 


65 


17/100 : 


32: 62 


80: 18 


1/22 


22 


1/14 : 


21: 95 


15:100 


4/25 


80 


4/25 : 


18:111 


9:166 


* 




* : 


|36: 55 


23: 65 


7/24 


140 


5/12 : 


42: 48 


17: 88 


17/1000 


8.5 


17/1000: 


38: 52 


16: 93 


1/7 


71 


1/7 : 






1/4 


125 


1/4: 


63: 31 


32: 46 


1/4 


125 


1/5 : 


22: 99 


14:107 


11/100 


55 


11/100 : 


24: 83 


6:250 


1/6 


83 


1/9 : 


30: 67 


19: 79 


1/5 


100 


1/6 : 


52: 38 


26: 57 


1/8 


61 


1/7 : 


45: 44 


22: 68 


1/5 


100 


1/5 : 


29: 69 


|27: 55 








21: 95 


17: 88 


1/5 


100 


1/5 : 


17:117 


17: 88 


1/8,1/12 


: 61 
:41 


l/S : 



:400% 
:166 

71 
:110 

45 

65 

30 
:125 

71 

39 

95 
:100 
:166 
:200 

40 

85 
:125 

80 

:200 
8.5 

71 
:125 
:100 

55 

55 

83 

71 
:100 
:100 
:100 
:100 



^Data not secured from school. 



250 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

What this table reveals. Some of the most striking facts 
shown in the above tahle are as follows : 

1. Less than 25 per cent sufficiency of urinals at Emer- 
son and Irving; 

2. Less than 45 per cent sufficiency of urinals at Bonne- 
ville, Franklin, Hamilton, Jefiferson, Sumner, Lincoln, AA^ash- 
ington and Webster; 

3. Less than 50 p^er cent sufficiency of seats for boys' 
at Sumner; 

4. Less than 20 per cent sufficiency of seats for girls at 
Monroe ; 

5. Less than 50 per cent sufficiency of seats for girls at 
Sumner and Forest; 

6. Equal proportion of seats for the two sexes in six 
schools ; 

7. Astonishing variation from school to school in the 
apportionment of seats and urinals, ranging, for example, 
from one seat for nine girls at Longfellow to one for eighty 
girls at Monroe; from one seat for eleveni boys at LongfelloM" 
to one for 54 boys at Sumner; from one urinal for seventeen 
boys at Longfellow to one for ninety at Emerson and one for 
ninety-five at Irving. 

8. Similar lack of standards as regards the lightning of 
toilets, the ratio of window to floor space ranging from 4-5 
down to 1-59. 

Surely the above facts show chaos compounded. The laws 
of chance would have given about as correct proportions. 
The need for some educational oversight of the building de- 
j>artment is certainly evident. 

At least ten toilets have less than half the standard 
amount of window area, and the lighting of toilets is often 
less satisfactory than the ratios given in the table would sug- 
gest. In many cases the windows are partly below ground, 
often the panes are not fully transparent, or the light is ob- 
structed in some other Avay. Generally the seats are arranged 
in double rows, in which case the row facing awav from the 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 251 

windows is almost sure to be poorly lighted. Only one row 
of seats should be permitted. Toilet rooms should always be 
made large enough to permit the observance of this rule. 

The method of dispensing toilet paper is very unsatisfac- 
tory. Ordinarily there is only one dispenser for a toilet room, 
jione being placed in the individual stalls. The dispenser used 
is the familiar lock-box variety, which works so slowly that 
in the rush periods at recess pupils can not possibly be prop- 
erly supplied. 

In one school boys were seen to go to the stalls without 
paper rather than stand in line to wait their turn. In another 
toilet the dispenser was empty and no paper was to be found. 
The object of the single-dispenser plan was said to be economy! 
Surely one of the wealthiest cities of its class in the United 
States ought not find itself driven to such disgusting economy. 
Economy is a good think in its place, but children ought to be 
encouraged or even explicitly instructed to avoid economy of 
this kind. What possible connections can be established be- 
tween such a type of building supervision and the hygiene 
instruction in the schools? 

Drinking fountains. It is a pleasure to find inviting, 
bubbling fountains at all the schools. In sixteen (half) of the 
schools, however, there are no fountains inside the building. 
It is recommended that half the fountains, at least, should be 
placed inside. More attention should also be given to the ratio 

TABLE NO. 44. 
DRINKING FOUNTAINS PROVIDED. 

Less than 25 children per fountain, 2 schools ; 
Between 25 and 50 children per fountain, 3 schools; 
Between 50 and 75 children per fountain, 11 schools; 
Between 75 and 100 children per fountain, 9 schools; 
Between 100 and 125 children per fountain, 8 schools ; 
Between 125 and 150 children per fountain, schools; 
Over 150 children per fountain, 2 schools. 



252 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

of fountains to school children. The table just given shows 
this to be very uneven. Some of the schools having more 
fountains than necessary, others too few. Probably one foun- 
tain for about 75 to 100 children is the correct proportion. 

Roller towels. In schools where the common drinking 
cup has long been banished it is surprising to find the common 
roller towel everywhere in evidence. No school is without it. 
Many of those seen were unspeakably dirty, as of course 
roller towels are expected to be. One of the principals testi- 
fied that he had recently acquired pink-eye from drying his 
hands on one and then rubbing his eye with the finger. It 
has been often enough demonstrated that the roller towel is a 
frequent means of spreading contagious disease. It should 
of course be banished forthwith in favor of sanitary paper 
napkins. 

Janitor service. The janitor service, though perhaps on 
the whole not greatly inferior to that of the average city, is in 
a number of schools not satisfactory. A majority of the prin- 
cipals questioned testified, however, that the janitors are con- 
scientious in their efforts to do the work as it should be done. 
The fault, where any exists, appears to be chiefly in the lack 
of persistent and intelligent supervision, especially the latter. 

Feather dusters are used exclusively in three of the build- 
ings (Emerson, Longfellow, and "Wasatch), and in part in six- 
teen others. The feather duster is a criminal offender and 
should not be tolerated. 

iS'till worse, dry sweeping is regularly practiced in both 
classrooms and halls of seven buildings, namely. Ensign, For- 
est, Onequa, Oquirrh, Poplar Grove, Sumner and West High. 
In certain other buildings sweeping compound is used in the 
halls, but not the classrooms. It would appear that many of 
the janitors use the sweeping compound only intermittently, as 
four out of eleven were found sweeping without it. "When 
questioned, each gave the same reply, namely, that the supply 
had just been exhausted ! In all these cases choking clouds of 
dust were being raised. Another prevailing practice to be 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 



253 



strongly condemned is that of sweeping the halls while the 
school is in session. All the class rooms are swept daily ex- 
cept in the West High School. 

There are no vacuum cleaners in the schools. This method 
of removing dirt and dust is wonderfully satisfactory in school 
buildings when the cleaning plant is properly installed. Care- 
ful attention, however, must be paid to size and location of 
duets, power of fans, etc. It is strongly urged that vacuum 
cleaners be given a thorough trial in buildings erected in the 
future. 

The floors of most, but not all, of the buildings have been 
oiled, though in some cases not for many months or even 
years. The use of floor oils should be required in all buildings, 
regardless of protests on the part of a few teachers. The oil 
should be applied lightly at least twice a year. The floor 
should first be thoroughly cleaned, and the oil which does 
not penetrate the wood should be carefully mopped up. If 
these precautions are taken the oiled floor will not look un- 
sightly and it will not soil the clothing. Oiling the floors is 
imperative in the interests of health. 

Over and over again it has been experimentally demon- 
strated that it decreases the number of floating dust particles 
and of bacteria to one-fifth or one-tenth that found in un- 
treated rooms. 

This is illustrated in the following tests made by Dr. Lam- 
bert in an English school : 

TABLE NO. 45. 
EFFECT OF TREATING F'LOORS WITH OIL. 



Plates exposed 



Colonies of bacteria 



Floors treated by oil Floors not treated 



5 minutes in still air 





7 


30 minutes in still air 


2 


12 


5 minutes during sweeping 


38 


456 


5 minutes just after sweeping 


11 


79 


5 minutes beginning 10 minutes 






after sweeping 


6 


62 


minutes beginning 15 minutes 






after sweeping 


1 


31 



254 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

Need for greater cleanliness. Unqnestionably much of the 
nasal catarrh and throat trouble found among the children 
(See Figure 43) is accounted for by the antiquated methods 
of school housekeeping in vogue in this city. Every effort 
should be made to keep the school building as neat as a well- 
kept home and as clean as a hospital. This should be the aim, 
even though it is not always possible to attain it fully. 

More could be done in this direction if the school grounds 
were always well drained, properly graded, and in part grav- 
eled. More attention should be paid to having children clean 
their shoes before entering the building, and for this purpose 
door mats and scrapers should be more liberally provided. 
On rainy days the members of the survey staff saw many 
school buildings in which the floors of class rooms were covered 
with mud. 

It was not possible to gather extensive data regarding 
the compentency of janitors in the management of the heating 
and ventilating apparatus. The temperature records given on 
p. 236 show that some fault exists here, but exactly how much 
of this is to be charged against the janitors, and how much 
to the imperfection of heating plants, we do not know. The 
matter is recommended for further investigation by the school 
authorities. The same may be said in regard to the imperfec- 
tions of ventilation. 

Next to the principal, the janitor is the most important 
officer in the school building. The duties are so varied that 
it is not easy to find persons who have all the needed quali- 
fications. Janitors should combine the neat housewife's ideals 
of cleanliness with a fair knowledge of mechanics. The right 
moral and temperamental qualifications are no less important. 
It is evident that it is impossible to give too much care to the 
choice of janitors. After the selection has been made, efficiency 
should be the only ground for retention. 

Efficiency of janitors can be greatly increased by super- 
vision and training. Professional study, including lectures 
and required reading, should be arranged at least every second 
year for the entire janitorial force. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 255 

Fire protection. Only the newest buildings are fire proof. 
The stairs are usually woodeD, the furnace rooms are not al- 
ways fire proof, and the fire escapes are in a few cases either 
lacking" or inadequate. One of the outside doors was found 
locked during school hours at two buildings. Only a few of 
the schools have panic bolts for the outside doors. The fire 
drills, five of which were witnessed, were reasonably good, 
but not always as orderly as could be desired. The time for 
clearing the building ranged from a minute and twenty sec- 
onds to two minutes and five seconds. 

Serious fire tragedies have occured in school buildings 
no worse than the majority of those in Salt Lake City, "and it 
is recommended that precautions be taken on all the points 
enumerated above. Panic bolts should he immediately pro- 
vided for all outside doors, and fire drills should be subjected 
to more uniform control. Future buildings should be made 
more nearly fire-proof. 

Quality of construction and costs. The limited time for 
the survey did not permit a careful study of these questions. 
Costs vary so much in different parts of the country that only 
a searching investigation w^ould have made possible any criti- 
cism on this point. The quality of construction appears to 
have been, on the w^hole, very substantial, — unfortunately so, 
considering the primitive type of" architecture in all but the 
most recent buildings. All hut those erected in the last four 
or five years are so faulty in plan that it is a pity they are 
not now rickety enough to demand replacement. It is depress- 
ing to think that some of these will last a quarter of a century 
yet and that many thousands of children will have to suffer 
from their defects. The planning of school building should be 
looked upon, indeed, as a solemn undertaking. It is a task 
which calls not only for the highest class of professional skill, 
but also for a readiness to regard every other interest as sec- 
ondary to the welfare of children. 

Repairs. The annual budget for the maintenance and re- 



256 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

pairs of the school buildiugs, which for the past six years has 
averaged about $55,000 a year, seems rather large, when we 
consider the present condition of the buildings. The question 
raised is Avhether the monej' expended for this purpose has 
always been devoted to the kind of repairs most urgent. Many 
new floors have recently been laid, at considerable expense, in 
buildings where alterations of rooms and improved toilet fa- 
cilities were much more needed. These old floors would have 
had to be very bad indeed to justify their renewal at the ex- 
pense of other needed improvements. 

Grood floors are important, but it maj' be well to empha- 
size the fact that in disposing of a repair budget there seems 
to be a natural tendency to give preference to the kind of re- 
pair work which is simplest, which requires the least planning 
and the least supervision, and which carries with it the least 
educational significance. Floor renewal falls in this class. 
Fundamental alterations, the reconstruction of toilets, changes 
in lighting, etc., all require better school-engineering knowl- 
edge, more forethought in the planning, and more expert 
supervision. 

As a matter of fact it requires more thought to distribute 
to the best advantage $50,000 for repairs than to plan a new 
school building costing $100,000. It is evident, however, that 
the matter has not been viewed in this light in Salt Lake City 
in the past. 

Summary and recommendations. 1. About half of the 
school sites are of inadequate size. Approximately 10,500 
children attend schools where the available playground space 
amounts to less than 100 sq. ft. per child. Several of these 
sites could yet be enlarged, and it is recommended that steps 
be taken to this end. Future needs in this line should be an- 
ticipated. 

2. The architectural plans in all but the most recent 
buildings, and to a certain extent these also, have involved 
veiy great waste of building space, amounting in many of the 
buildings to 40 per cent in terms of cubical contents. 



THE SCHOOL PLANT. 257 

3. There are no baths, no cloak rooms, no nurses' rooms, 
and few assembly rooms in the city. The quarters for domes- 
tic science and manual training are in many cases unsatis- 
factory. It is suggested that most of these conveniences could 
be provided in future buildings by proper economy of space. 

4. It is recommended that most of the 74 basement rooms 
be abandoned at the earliest possible moment, and that base- 
ment rooms be avoided in future buildings. The same recom- 
mendation holds for the 46 hall classrooms. 

5. There are relatively few classrooms in the city which 
conform to all the standards of lighting. In more than half 
the lighting is very objectionable. It is recommended that the 
walls and ceilings be re-tinted; that light obstructions be re- 
moved where possible; that translucent, double-roller window 
shades be substituted for those now in use ; and that in future 
buildings the following standards be observed : 

(a). Avoidance of north or south lighting; 
(b). All rooms to be lighted from left only; 
(c). Ratio of window area to floor area, 20-25 per cent; 
(d). Six to eight feet of dead space in front of first 
window. 

6. Temperature records collected at three different times 
in the school j'^ear show that out of 1157 records, 71 per cent 
are unsatisfactory, and that 16 per cent are as much as 5 de- 
grees too high or too low. Other facts indicate that the ven- 
tilating systems in use are also often at fault. It is recom- 
mended that the heating and ventilating apparatus be thor- 
oughly gone over with a view to the correction of as many 
defects as possible. 

7. Adjustable desks are present in sufficient number in 
only 10 per cent of the classrooms. In the future only adjust- 
able desks should be purchased. Practically all desks are in- 
correctly set. The arrangement should be changed from "zero- 
distance" to "minus distance" throughout the city. 

8. The blackboards are generally in good repair, but a 
large number are placed too high from the floor. 



258 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

9. The janitor work should be improA'ed and more care- 
fully supervised. Dry-sweeping" and dry-dusting should be 
eliminated. The school principals should be given larger con- 
trol over the selection and work of the janitors. 

10. Several of the toilets need improvements, and a few 
should be entirely replaced. The fixtures are often of au un- 
satisfactory type, seats and urinals are often insufficiect in 
number, and the method of dispensing toilet paper is very 
objectionable. The lighting should be improved where possible. 

11. The roller towel and common soap' should go. 

12. Drinking fountains should be more carefully appor- 
tioned according to the number of children, and half of them 
should be placed inside the buildings. 

13. Showers for both boys and girls should find a place 
in all new buildings. 

14. Open-air classes should be provided for tuberculous 
and pre-tuberculous children. 

15. The worst of the present buildings should be aban- 
doned as early as possible. 

16. A new building-, somewhat centrally located, should 
be provided for the sub-normal children, to take the place of 
the present Twelfth School. 

17. Special forethought should be given to the repair 
budget, in order to insure that it be used to better advantage. 

.18. The superintendent of buildings and the janitor force 
should be made responsible to the superintendent of schools. 

19. It is especially urg:ed that in all matters pertaining 
to heating, lig'hting, ventilation, and school planning generally, 
the services of a qualified full-time expert be secured and re- 
tained. 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 259 

. CHAPTER XI. 
HEALTH SUPERVISION. 

(Terman.) 

Standards for comparison. Before offering a criticism of 
tlie health supervision in the Salt Lake City schools it will 
be well to set forth the standards which have been generally 
agreed upon by the best authorities as constituting the essen- 
tials for this phase of school work. While a few good school 
systems are at present lacking in some of the following items, 
the effort is being made in all progressive cities to incorporate 
as many of them as possible, and many school systems have 
the equivalent of them all. The standards set forth are meant 
to indicate the requirements in cities of from 75,000 to 150,000 
population. 

Officers and assistants. One full-time medical director; 
one half-time assistant physician for each 10,000 children in 
the grades ; one full-time female physician for each 800 to 1200 
high school girls; one full-time male physician for each 800 to 
1200 high school boys ; a nurse lor every 2000 pupils in the 
grades ; one half-time dentist, and one half-time specialist in 
diseases O'f the eye, ear, nose and throat, for each 10,000 
pupils. 

Scope and nature of work. The work should include the 
following : 

(1) Frequent inspection of all the children by school 
nurses for the control of transmissible diseases, with proper re- 
gulations for exclusions ; 

(2) A thorough medical examination of each child at 
least every second school year, for the purpose of detecting 
chronic defects as well as acute disorders ; 

(3) Annual tests of vision and hearing, either by nurses 
or teachers ; 



260 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

(4) Persistent follow-up work by nurses, in order that 
parents may 'be convinced of the necessity of having their 
children's defects attended to; 

(5) Free medical and dental treatment in a central clinic, 
for the children of poor or indigent, by a regularly employed 
school physician and dentist, this to be supplemented by co- 
operation with local dental and medical societies and with 
hospitals and dispensaries; 

(6) Sanitary inspection of school buildings by nurses and 
physicians ; 

(7) Medical examination of candidates for teaching posi- 
tions ; 

(8) Open-air schools for tuberculous or anaemic children ; 

(9) School lunches for the ill-nourished, furnished gratis 
to those who can not afford to pay ; 

(10) The education of the home in matters of child hy- 
giene by means of parent teacher associations, distribution of 
health leaflets, etc; and 

(11) Publicity work for enlisting the co-operation of the 
general public. 

In order to give proper scope to the work, and in order to 
insure effective co-operation among its various branches, it is 
usually advisable to have it under the control of the board 
of education rather than the board of health. 

Costs. Director, $3000; full-time assistant physicians or 
dentists, $1800 to $2200; half-time physicians or dentists, $1000 
to $1200; head nurse, $100 per month; regular nurses, $75 to 
$90 per month. Total cost, between 75 cents and $1.00 for each 
school child, or $15,000 to $20,000 for a city the size of Salt 
Lake City. To this should be added the outlay for equipping 
a central dinic, and for the nurse's room which should be pro- 
vided in each new school building. 

In judging the school health work of this city it is neces- 
sary to keep the above standards rather fully in mind. No 
other function which the school has assumed in recent years 
exceeds health supervision in importance ; and yet, partly be- 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 261 

cause of its newness, it is often carried on with little vision of 
the larger purposes it ought to serve. Even cities which are 
otherwise commendably progressive in school matters some- 
times rest content with half-way measures in health super- 
vision, not realizing their inadequacy. This is especially true 
in localities which are geographically isolated, and where there 
is only limited opportunity to observe the work of other cities 
and to learn from their experience. 

Stages in the development of health service. The growth 
of school health work in the cities of the United States, and 
other countries as well, is marked by certain well-defined 
stages. It always begins in an effort of the board of health 
to prevent the spread of transmissible diseases in the schools, 
to eradicate parasites, and to improve the sanitary conditions 
of the buildings. The work indicated represents the first stage 
of health supervision, and is usually called ''medical inspec- 
tion." Because of the obvious duty of the public to counteract 
the increased danger of contagion, incident to compulsory at- 
tendance of all classes of children in the same school, this was 
the logical and natural first point of attack. 

After this phase of the work has been gotten well in hand, 
and when the medical inspectors have had more opportunity 
to observe and study the physical needs of the children, they 
are brought to a keener realization of the large number of 
children who have one or more serious physical defects other 
than a contagious disease. Among the defects, often neglected 
or unnoticed even by intelligent parents and teachers, are 
adenoids, enlarged tonsils, visual defects, partial deafness, de- 
fective teeth, malnutrition, physical deformities, heart trouble, 
diseased glands, incipient tuberculosis, etc. While only about 
2 or 3 per cent, of the school children of a city need to be 
excluded in any one year because of a contagious disease, 
ah out 60 to 75 per cent, are always found to have one or more 
serious physical defects of the chronic type. 

The second stage in development. When such conditions 
are understood and appreciated the nature and purpose of 



262 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

medical iuspeetion must be differently eoiieeived. In addition 
to the frequent and hasty inspections for contagion, thorough 
physical examinations are then instituted, including examina- 
tions of heart, lungs, nutrition, teeth, eyes, ears, and throat. 
Assistant, physicians and school nurses, in rather large number, 
become necessary in order to meet the extension and increased 
thoroughness of the work. Since many parents fail to realize 
the seriousness of tJie defects discovered, and disregard the 
notices sent out by the medical director, it becomes necessary 
to organize a vigorous foUov-up service. In this the well 
trained and tactful nurse has proved herself indispensable. Be- 
cause some parents are too poor to pay for the medical or 
dental treatment recommended, free clinics must he organized 
and the co-operation of local medical and dental associations, 
charity organizations, hospitals, and dispensaries must be en- 
listed. This may be called the second stage in the development 
of school health work. 

The third stage. This is represented by a shift of the em- 
phasis to preventive work. The attempt to bring about the 
cure of defects after they have become Avell established is 
praiseworthy, but the task is ditiicult, and the results are often 
partial and unsatisfactory. It is far more rational to exercise 
such constant and close supervision over the health and 
physical development of the school children that detects will 
be prevented, or else remedied before they have become a 
menace to healthy growth. The acceptance of this point of 
view necessitates : 

(1) Increased thoroughness of the examinations in the 
lower grades : 

(2) Extension of free medical and dental treatment : 

(3) The establishment of open-air schools for anaemic 
and pre-tuberculous children : 

(■1) School feeding; 

(5) School baths; 

(6) Special schools for the cure of speech defects; 

(7) ^Medical supervision of physical training and ath- 
letics; 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 263 

(8) Modifications in the program and discipline of the 
school in order to guard against fatigue and to prevent injury 
to neuropathic children ; 

(9) Special classes for the mentally subnormal; 

(10) Increased attention to standards of heating, light- 
ing, and ventilation ; 

(11) Improvement of janitorial service ; 

(12) More practical and effective hygiene teaching; 

(13) Enlarged playground facilities and play supervision ; 

(14) Systematic enlightenment of the teachers in matters 
of health ; 

(15) Organized publicity and extension work, designed 
to improve the hygienic standards of the home. 

'^School health Avork of this inclusive and preventive nature 
goes far beyond what has usually been called "medical inspec- 
tion" and may be fitly termed health and development super- 
vision. Its aim is to organize all the forces and departments 
of the school, not only for the prevention of disease, but also 
for the more positive cultivation of physical efficiency. 

Health supervision becomes an educational service. It is 

at once evident that health work of this broad scope, inter- 
woven as it is with the everyday educational activities of the 
school, can not be carried on as an incident in the public health 
work, or as-. a side issue from the office of the board of health. 
It must have a full-time and responsible head who is not only 
well trained in preventive medicine generally and child hygiene 
in particular, but who has also the educational viewpoint and 
the ability and authority to aid in shaping the activities of the 
school so as better to accord with the child's physical needs. 
Accordingly it is found necessary in nearly all cases, before 
health supervision can enter fully into the third stage above 
described, for the board of education to a'ssume responsibility 
for the work and to finance and control it. In the first stage 
the work can be perfectly handled by the board of health, and, 
though somewhat less satisfactorily, in the second stage also. 



26i SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Very much depends, however, on the personal equation of the 
man behind the work. Better results will of course be secured 
by a first-class director employed by the board of health than 
by a second or third rate director working under the authorit}^ 
of the board of education. 

Nature of the school health work in Salt Lake City, In 
the light of the above discussion we are noAV in position to 
judge the school health work in Salt Lake City with reference 
to widely accepted and impersonal standards. The leading 
features of the sj^stem are as follows : 

1. The work is carried on under the authority of the city 
board of health, and under the general direction of the health 
commissioner. It is more immediately under the direction of 
one of the board of health's assistant physicians, who devotes 
to it a large share of his time. 

2. There are six nurses, including a head nurse, all of 
whom give most of their time to school work as long as the 
schools are in session. 

3. The efforts of the above corps of officers are at present 
devoted mainly to the prevention and control of contagious 
diseases. Recently, also, a good deal has been done to bring 
about the treatment of adenoids, diseased tonsils, and the more 
serious cases of eye defects. 

4. Each school is visited from two to four times a week 
bj^ a nurse, who spends on an average from one to two minutes 
in each class room, walking down each aisle and inspecting 
the faces and arms of the children for signs of contagious dis- 
ease. In some of the schools the hair is also inspected for 
pediculosis. 

More careful examinations are made of children who show 
symptoms of contagious disease, and exclusions are ordered in 
the cases which seem to require it. At the same time, permits 
are issued for the re-admission of children who have been 
previously excluded and are in condition to return to school. 
Such children are allowed to report to the nurse at the school 
which they regularly attend, instead of being compelled to 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 265 

journey down town to the office of the health commissioner for 
this purpose. Before leaving the building the nurse makes note 
of any unsanitary conditions which seem to demand attention. 
Most of her remaining time is taken up with home visitation, 
and in making arrangements for the free medical treatment 
of the children of the poor. 

5. When a child has been excluded by the nurse, as de- 
scribed in the last paragraph, a visit is made to the child's 
home by one of the assistant physicians for the purpose of 
making a diagnosis of the case. Most of these visits are made 
by one physician. 

6. There is no medical examination, periodically or other- 
wise, of the entire school population, and there are few indi- 
vidual instances of medical examination except in cases of sus- 
pected contagious disease. 

7. Neither a medical nor a dental clinic has yet been 
established. 

8. High school pupils do not have the advantage of 
medical examinations or advice, and there is no medical super- 
vision of athletics. However, a commendable beginning has 
been made in this line by the supervisor of physical education, 
who examines high school boys for defects of vision, hearing, 
heart, and posture. 

9. There are no bathing facilities in the grades below the 
high school. 

10. Little has been done toward providing school meals 
for ill-nourished children, 

11. In contrast v\^ith nearly all other cities of its size in 
the United States, Salt Lake City has not yet established an 
open-air school. 

12. The cost of the above work can not be ascertained 
exactly, because all who are engaged in it give a portion of 
their time to other duties. The six nurses are paid $5080 per 
year and the assistant physician who has direct charge of the 
work is paid $1500 per year. The cost of the school work may 
be estimated as between $5000 and $6000 per year, which is a 



266 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

little over 25 cents per pupil enrolled, or about one-third to 
one-fourth the cost of an adequate system of health supervision. 
13. In addition to the work carried on by the board of 
health, the board of education also employs an emergency 
physician to answer calls from the schools. Although the title 
of this physician is "medical inspector of schools," the office 
is at present a rather nominal one, as the duties are light and 
the pay proportional to the number of calls made. Another 
function of this branch of the school medical service is to pro- 
vide for the medical examinations of candidates for teaching 
positions, and to require, when it is deemed advisable, medical 
examinations of teachers in service. For this purpose a "board 
of medical examiners for teachers" has been selected, con- 
sisting of thirteen physicians with the physician by the board 
of education as chairman. 

Stage in development represented. Comparing now the 
scope of service attempted with the recognized standards al- 
ready set forth, it is immediately obvious that school health 
work in Salt Lake 'City has not progressed far beyond what we 
have described as the "first stage" of development. Trans- 
missible diseases are admirably controlled, sanitary inspection 
of the buildings is carried on, a few examinations for chronic 
defects are made, the nurses are doing as much follow-up work 
as time will permit, but the 60 or 75 per cent, of children who 
have chronic defects receive little attention as compared with 
the relatively small proportion who acquire a contagious dis- 
ease. The larger and more important fields of work which fall 
within the "second stage" and "third stage" already de- 
scribed have been little developed. The importance of this 
wider field will be set forth presently. 

It is a pleasure to add, however, that whatever work is 
attempted is apparently well done. The records show unmis- 
takably that contagious diseases have been significantly re- 
duced in the last two or three years. Parasites have been 
largely eradicated, and all the teachers questioned bore wit- 
ness to the fact that the work of the nurses had broug'ht ex- 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 267 

cellent results in the improvement of health conditions and in 
the promotion of cleanliness. That the follow-up work has 
been fruitful in spite of the large number of pupils assigned 
to each nurse (3000 to 3500) is indicated by the fact that 10 
per cent, of the pupils enrolled have had adenoids or tonsils 
removed, and that 3.4 per cent, have had such an operation 
within the last year. 

Results from the present service. Important evidence as 
to the efficiency of the nurses in controlling contagious diseases 
was secured in the following manner. It will be remembered 
that in making the routine inspections at a school the nurse 
excludes pupils who show symptoms of contagious disease, 
after which the assistant physician visits the child's home and 
makes a diagnosis. In each such case the office record shows 
what disease the nurse "suspected" and what the physician 
actually found. 

All these individual records for the school year 1914-15 
were turned over to a member of the survey staff and were 
summarized. The results show that 60 per cent, of the sus- 
picions were fully confirmed by the diagnosis of the physician, 
that in 23 per cent, of the cases in which the suspicion was not 
confirmed, there existed a condition of disease or defect which 
called for medical attention, and that in only 17 per cent, of 
the cases was there no need of a physician. On an average, 
therefore, five out of six cases reported by the nurses are 
found to need immediate medical care. This is certainly a 
splendid record. The contagious diseases discovered in the 
schools during the last year include, among others, the fol- 
lowing: 

Chicken pox, 41 cases. 

Impetigo, 11 cases. 

Mumps, 57 cases. 

Pink-eye, 43 eases. 

Scabies (itch), 22 cases. 

Whooping cough, 38 cases. 

Small pox, 3 cases. 



26S SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Seaiiet fever, 2 cases. 
Diptlieria, 2 eases. 
Measles, 2 eases. 
Eingworm, 7 cases, 
lu all probability each ease discovered in the first stages 
in the schools means the prevention of several additional cases. 

Effectiveness of the school nurse. These findings regard- 
ing the ability of school nurses to detect contagious diseases in 
the early stages are fully in accord with the experience of other 
cities. No better evidence could be desired that this phase of 
the work can be adequately taken care of by school nurses. 
To employ expensive physicians for the routine inspections 
would be a. waste of money. Even the best medical authorities 
(such as Dr. E. C. Cabot of Harvard, for example) admit that 
the well trained school nurse acquires a degree of skill in 
recognizing the early symptoms of contagious disease which 
is not excelled by the average practicing pln-siciau. One 
explanation is the large amount of experience secured by the 
nurse in a relatively short period of time. She is likely, indeed, 
to meet more cases of whooping cough or measles in the early 
stages in a single month than the practicing physician would 
ordinarily meet in the course of ten years. 

Another function well performed by the school nurses of 
Salt Lake City is that of vaccinating children against small 
pox. Vtah has no compulsory vaccination law and a majority 
of the school children have not been vaccinated, although no 
data were available to show the exact number of unvacciuated. 
Prompt action is therefore necessary when a case has been dis- 
covered in the schools. To meet the situation the nurses are 
allowed to perform, free of charge, vaccinations of school 
children who have been exposed to the disease. The practice 
is somewhat exceptional in the cities of the United States, 
largely because of the conservatism of many physicians who 
oppose it. There is absolutely no ground, however, for such 
opposition. Vaccinations are just as effective wheu performed 
gratis by the nurses as wheu performed by the physician at 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 269 

the rate of $2.00 per child. That they are also fully as safe is 
demonstrated by the fact that in the two years 1913 and 1914, 
1331 vaccinations were performed by the school nurses of Salt 
Lake City without serious complications in a single case. The 
practice should by all means be continued. 

Expansions planned by the health commissioner. The fact 
that the health work has thus far progressed little beyond the 
first stage is not offered as a criticism of those in charge of it. 
Because of possible misunderstanding and opposition, both on 
the part of the conservative element of the medical profession 
and of the public, it is often not the best policy to try to inaug- 
urate at one stroke an ideal sj^stem of school health supervis- 
ion. In a gradual expansion the wisdom of each step proves 
itself, and smoothes the way for still further progress. 

This has marked the development of the department in 
Salt Lake City. First one nurse was appointed, then a second, 
and two years ago the number was increased to six. An effort 
will be made to add two more next year, and ultimately others 
until there shall be one nurse for about 2000 children. Ar- 
rangements 'have been made for opening a dental clinic at the 
central office in the immediate future. Temporarily the dental 
work will be done without expense to the city by members of 
the local dental association. This will finally result, without 
doubt, in the employment of a regular school dentist. A similar 
arrangement is contemplated which will make possible the 
opening of a medical clinic. 

It is evident, therefore, that where the system is new, as 
is the case here, it should be judged less by what it has already 
accomplished than by the limits which are set for future accom- 
plishments. Judged by this standard the system of Salt Lake 
City merits a great deal of praise. The authorities in charge 
are fully cognizant of the work to be done, and appear to have 
the determination and the tact to bring about the desired ex- 
pansions. The point of view is strictly in harmony with mod- 
ern tendencies in child hygiene. 

Health conditions of Salt Lake City school children. In 



270 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

order to indicate some of the unsolved or only partly solved 
health problems among the school children, the following two 
questionnaires were sent to each teacher in the city. It will be 
noted that the data called for in the first questionnaire were 
secured by the teacher asking the questions of the children, 
and that the second questionnaire was filled out by the teachers 
on the basis of their own obserA^ation. 

While, of course, absolute accuracy can not be claimed for 
data gathered in this way, it is probable that in most cases they 
represent the facts fairly closely. Dr. E. B. Hoag, who has 
used similar question lists with more than 100,000 school 
children in California and Minnesota, has always found that 
the results thus obtained do not ditfer materially from those 
secured by his actual medical examinations. Indeed, when the 
data from these question lists are compared with the statistics 
resulting from the medical examinations which liave been given 
to millions of school children in hundreds of cities of the United 
States. Germany, France, England. Japan, Australia, and other 
countries, the anmunt of agreement is found to be remarkable. 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 271 

TABLE NO. 46. 
HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE I. 

(One to each teacher.) 

Name of school Grade 

Room Name of teacher 

Total number pupils 



(DIRECTIONS) Ask the children the following questions 
and record the results. It is important to ask the questions 
Avith the proper degree of seriousness, and to urge the pupils 
to answer as correctly as possible. 

1. How many have headache often (two or three times a 
month) ? 

2. How many have earache often (two or three tiraes a 
month) f 

3. How many sometimes have running of the ears? 

4. How many have had hearing tested sometime? 

5. How manv have had hearing tested in this school year? 



6. HoAv many have sore throat (u- colds often (two or 
three times a month) ? 

7. How many have had adenoids or tonsils removed? .... 
S. Ho"w many have had adenoids or tonsils taken out in 

the last year? 

9. How many O'tten have pain or watering of eyes? 

10. How many can not easily read the writing on the 
blackboard? 

• 11. How many find that the print often seems to blur, 
or run together, or look double ? 

12. How many have had the eyes tested sometime? 

13. How manv have had the eyes tested in the last year? 



14. How many have gone to a dentist sometime ? 

15. How many have gone to a dentist in the last year? 



16. How many have a tooth brush ? 

17. How many have used a tooth brush in the last twenty- 
four hours? 

18. How many have toothache often (two or three times 
a month) ? 

19. How many eat breakfast every day? 

20. Ho'w manv eat lunch every day? 



272 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE NO. 47. 

HEALTH QUESTIONNAIRE II. 

(One to each teacher.) 

Name of school Grade Room 

Name of teacher Number of pupils 



(To be filled out without asking children. Accuracy im- 
portant). 

1. Numher of pupils who have frequent or chronic dif- 
ficulty in breathing through the nose 

2. Number who have frequent or chronic nasal discharge 



3. Number who have nasal or thick voice 

4. Number who show symptoms of imperfect hearing .... 

5. Number who stutter or stammer 

6. Number who show symptoms of eye defects (redness 
or watering of the eyes, squinting, frowning, cross-eye, holding 
book too near, miscalling well known words, etc.) 

7. Number who wear glasses regularly 

8. Number who have some marked peculiarity, such as 
irritability, muscular twitchings, nervousness, excessive tim- 
idity, tendency to cry without cause, tendency to worry, mo- 
roseness, moral abnormality, etc 

9. Num'ber who show marked lack of mental alertness 



10. Number who are noticeably lacking in play activity 



11. Number who are delicate or frequently ill . 

12. Number whose posture is habitually faulty 



Summarizing the data on health conditions among the 
children, obtained from the questionnaires sent out, we get the 
following significant information : 

Headaches. More than 26 per cent, of the children (4409) 
have headaches often. This is about the usual percentage 
found. Dr Hoag's figures for several other cities range from 
20 to 25 per cent. Headache is an indication that something is 
wrong, and when the trouble is chronic we are always justified 
in suspecting eye-strain, nervousness, constipation, or some kind 
of digestive disturbance. It is often associated with poor 
nutrition and general weakness. 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 273 

Ears and Hearing. 7.5 per cent, of the children, (1243) 
have earache often, 5.5 per cent. (942) have had at sometime 
running of the ears, and 5.1 per cent. (883) have marked symp- 
toms of imperfect hearing. Dr. Hoag's figures from other 
cities give 10 per cent, for earache, 3 per cent, for running of 
the ears, and about 4 per cent, for imperfect hearing. Ear- 
ache often means an infection of the middle ear, and the dis- 
charge which sometimes follows the earache means that the 
pus has broken through the drum. The result is likely to be 
impaired hearing for life. In any school system, anywhere, 
tests of hearing will show that from 3 per cent, to 5 per cent. 
ol the children have seriously defective hearing in one of both 
ears, and that at least 1 per cent, have not over one-fourth 
normal hearing. 

In Salt Lake City only 13.6 per cent, of the children have 
ever had the hearing tested, and only 2.6 per cent, within the 
last year. Each child ought to have a hearing test every year. 
They can be given by the teachers, under proper supervision, 
and the time required for such tests is negligible. Annual 
tests of hearing are required by law in several states. 

Usually a fourth of one per cent are found to be so nearly 
deaf as to warrant their removal to special classes. At this 
rate the number in Salt Lake City who need such attention is 
not far from 50, or enough for two or three special classes. 

Eyes and vision. 22 per cent of the children testify that 
the print sometimes blurs, 23 per cent that the eyes sometimes 
pain, and 11.1 per cent are said by the teachers to show symp- 
toms of subnormal vision. 33 per cent have sometime had the 
eyes tested, 7.7 per cent within the last year. These results 
agree closely with the figures in other cities. It is safe to saj' 
that in any city at least 15 per cent of the children have im- 
perfect vision and that at least 10 per cent ought to wear 
glasses. In this city only 2.7 per cent of the children enrolled 
have glasses, which means that three-fourths of the cases of 
defective vision have been neglected (probably 1460). 



274 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



111 order to check up the data secured from the teachers, 
the MeCallie vision test was given by Mr. AYillianis, of the sur- 
vey staff, to 510 children. As shown in the following" chart, 
15 per cent of these children had defective vision, while only 
3.5 per cent of those tested were wearing glasses. 




WEARING 
GLASSES, 



FIG. 42. SHOWING THE RESULTS OF THE EXAMINA- 
TION OF CHILDREN'S EYES IN SALT LAKE CITY. 
(MeCallie vision tests). 

Tests of this kind should be given to every child each 
school year. Like hearing tests, these are required by law in 
a number of states. They can be given readi.'y by the teachers 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 275 

after a little instruction. The teachers can not determine the 
cause O'f the defective vision, but they can usually determine 
whether a defect exists. The oculist will do the rest. 

Nose and throat troubles. 19.8 per cent have sore throat 
often, 8.6 per cent have obstructed breathing, 4 per cent have 
chronic nasal discharge, and 5.7 per cent have a marked nasal 
voice (indicative of obstructed breathing). It is certain, there- 
fore, that not less than 10 per cent of the children (2000) have 
neglected defects of nose or throat. The number would be 
far greater but for the fact that another 10 per cent have had 
adenoids or tonsils removed. As with other defects, the per 
cent having nose or throat trouble agrees closely with similar 
data from other cities. 

The injuries produced by such defects are so well recog- 
nized that extended discussion here is not necessary. It is 
sufficient to point out that obstructed breathing nearly always 
reduces the lung capacity, and retards mental and physical 
growth. Many a ''backward" child can be made over by the 
removal of breathing obstructions. Neglected adenoids lay 
the foundation for a number of constitutional weaknesses 
which may not become apparent until adult life. The trouble 
often spreads to the ear. Most cases of partial deafness can 
be traced to neglected throat troubles. 

Teeth. Fortunately for our purposes the teeth of 4363 
of the school children of the city had recently been examined 
by deniu rom the local dental association. These included 
all in attendance at the Riverside, Jackson, Whittier, Lowell, 
Lafayette, Popuar Grove and "Wasatch schools. The results 
were summarized by us for the schools separately, and are 
shown in the table given tin the folloAving page. 

What this examination revealed. Some of the most strik- 
ing facts shown in the above table are as follows : 

That with 19 per cent the general condition of the mouth 
is distinctly "bad*', and with 34.1 per cent only "fair." 

That the condition of the gums is "bad" with 9.7 per cent, 
and only "fair" with 17.4 per cent. 



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HEALTH SUPERVISION. 277 

That 32.1 per cent have mal-occlusion. 

That the teeth of 24.8 per cent are badly in need of clean- 
ing. 

That the 4363 children have a total of 16,612 carious (de- 
caying) teeth, or an average number of 3.7 carious teeth per 
child. 

That 1986 teeth were found needing extraction. 

That 43.5 per cent of the children do not use a tooth brush. 

The results of the health questionnaire submitted to the 
teachers by the survey commission brought out the following 
additional facts: 

That 25.1 per cent of the children often have toothache. 

That 36.8 per cent have never been to a dentist. 

That 64 per cent have not been to a dentist within the last 
year. 

That nearly 19 per cent do not own a tooth brush. 

That 50 per cent do not use a tooth brush regularly. 

The above facts are in harmony with countless other in- 
vestigations. It is always found that 75 to 90 per cent of the 
school children have at least one decaying tooth, and that half 
the children have ordinarily from three to five. Comparison 
of the different schools will show that while some schools are 
better than others, the conditions on the whole are very gen- 
eral. 

It is evident, therefore, that a campaign is in order for 
the improA^ement of the children's teeth. Nowhere else will 
the proverbial "ounce of prevention" go farther. Dental 
caries, of all the common defects, is the most widespread. It 
is often called "the people's disease." Moreover, it is largely 
a disease of childhood and youth. If teeth are kept in repair 
till adult life they do not readily decay. If neglected till the 
age of 20, they are often beyond salvage. A dollar spent at 
the right time will save many dollars of dental bills later. The 
best time to treat toothache is before it occurs. When a tooth 
has come to the aching point the best time for saving it has 
gone by. 



278 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

Since parents often do not appreciate the truth of these 
facts, and do not realize the great value of sound teeth for 
health, it is necessary for the school to make frequent dental 
examinations of all the children, and to urge parents to have 
defective teeth treated. AVhere parents can not afford to pay 
dental bills the work should be done gratis by school dentists. 
The school dentist is indeed as indispensable as the school 
doctor. If not all the dental work can be done at once it is 
well to concentrate on the younger children first, as this is the 
place where a given amount of preventive work goes the 
farthest. 

G-eneral weakness. The study shows that 5.3 per cent of 
the children are classified by the teachers as "frequently ill," 
3.4 per cent as "lacking in physical energy," and 8.5 per cent 
as "not mentally alert." We are justified in concluding that 
probably 10 per cent in all, or over 2000 children, are physically 
much below par. These conditions are not peculiar to Salt 
Lake 'City, but have been found everywhere, including such 
cities as Pasadena, Berkeley, Oakland, Los Angeles, and hun- 
dreds of eastern cities. Children of this class, more than any 
other, need constant health supervision. They are the ones 
most injured by poor ventilation, bad lighting, lack of oppor- 
tunity for play, etc. To look after their welfare is far more 
important than the control of contagious diseases, important 
as that is. 

Mentally or morally exceptional children. 10 per cent of 
the children are placed by the teachers in this group, which 
includes children who are exceptionally nervous, irritable, 
morose, lacking in selfcontrol, prone to morbid worry, or mor- 
ally abnormal. It is an important function of the department 
of health supervision to give the teachers instruction and ad- 
A'ice in the handling of such children. The child who is mis- 
understood at home and in the school is in danger of develop- 
ing mental or moral traits which will make his life miserable 
or futile. 

Speech defects. One and eight-tenths per cent of the chil- 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 279 

dren are classified as stutterers, which is almost exactly the 
number found in several extensive investigations elsewhere. 

The stuttering child is greatly handicapped in life if he 
does not recover. Spontaneous recovery often does not occur, 
and as a result the child's vocational opportunities are greatly 
limited. At present little is heing done in this country for 
stuttering children. Their treatment " of fers a free field for 
quacks and charlatans, whose prey they often become. 

The experience of other countries, however, demonstrates 
that 80 per cent to 85 per cent of cases of stuttering among 
school children can be cured. Several countries of Europe 
conduct special classes for their benefit. Records show that 
cure is usually effected within three to six months. It is 
hoped that American cities will soon see the wisdom of this 
example. 

Malnutrition. Figures were not obtainable directly on 
this point, for the reason that teachers are not able to ascer- 
tain the facts. In some of the schools, however, the exper- 
ienced eye can detect large numbers of children who are evi- 
dently ill-nourished. It is hardly likely that this is due in 
many cases to actual insufficiency of food. There are many 
other causes of malnutrition, such as nnwise choice of foods, 
improper cooking, weakness of the powers of digestion and 
assimilation, etc. Parental negligence is often to blame. The 
results of the health questionnaire show that 11.4 per cent 
of the children do not breakfast regularly, and that 9.1 per 
cent sometimes miss lunch. The health department has no 
duty more important than that of identifying the ill-nourished 
children, and the school department no more urgent duty than 
that of ameliorating their condition. 

School lunches are one means of helping ill-nourished 
children. Lunches ought to be served in several schools, such 
as Fremont, Bonneville, Franklin, Lincoln, Jackson and Riv- 
erside. Where the children cannot afford to pay the cost of 
a meal the expense should be borne ^y the board of educa- 
tion. Much good can also be accomplished by means of health 



280 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



leaflets issued to parents, setting forth in simple lansruage the 
most important rnles for the eare and feeding of ehildren. 
The school ean eo-operatc further by giving greater emphasis 
to domestic science, play, pcr&onal hygiene, etc. 





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HAVE HEADACHE OFTEN 
HAVE EARACHE OFTEN 
DEFECTIVE HEARING 
DEFECTIVE VISION 
SORE THROAT OFTEN 
OBSTRUCTED BREATHING 
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HAVE NEVER BEEN TO'A DENTIST 
DO NOT HAVE A TOOTH BRUSh 
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FIG. 43. SIlOAVlXi^ SO:\IK HEALTH CONDITIONS 

AMONG THE SCHOOL CHILDREN OF 

SALT LAKE CITY. 



Healtli work should be extended. The foregoing discussion 
gives an idea of the broad responsibilities of a school health 
department. The control of contagions disease is but one of 
its many functions, and by no means the most important. 
There are at least a half dozen other lines of work fully as 
important. The old conception, Avhich would limit the fum?- 



HEALTH SUPERVISION. 281 

tion of the school to the cultivation of the child's mind, is now 
obsolete. Children should not be taught as though they were 
disembodied spirits. In thousands of cases defective bodies 
largely nullify educational efforts. Social responsibility for 
children's health is no less than for their intellectual develop- 
ment, and it is 'becoming increasingly clear that the best place 
to lodge this responsibility for children of school age is with 
a Avell organized department of school-health supervision. 

Conclusions and recommeiidations. As a result of this 
study the following conclusions and recommendations seem 
warranted. 

1. The school health woi-k is excellent as far as it goes. 
The handling of contagious disease is according to the most 
approved methods and other valuable work is being done. 
However, the scope of the department should be enlarged so 
as to make possible greater attention to conditions of defect; 
other than contagious disease. 

2. The needed expansions would include : 

(a) Thorough medical examination of each child at least 

every second year. 

(b) Annual tests of vision and hearing by the teach- 

ers. 

(c) Improvment of conditions of the teeth and mouth. 

(d) Extension of the follow-up service. 

(e) The hygienic supervision of athletics and physical 

education. 

(f) Systematic instruction of the teachers in matters 

pertaining to child hygiene. 

(g) The establishment by the board of education of 

school lunches, school baths, increased play facil- 
ities, openair schools and other special classes. 
Facts have been presented which show that chronic physi- 
cal defects exist in great number in the children of the city, 
and that the health Avork thus far undertaken has given only 
minor attention to these. 

3. The necessary extensions of the work will require a 



282 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

number of additional physicians and nurses, and at least two 
half-time dentists. The annual biidget for this work should 
not be less than $15,000 and it ought to approximate $20,000. 
4. It is recommended that for the present the Avork re- 
main under the charge of the department of health, particu- 
larly since the board of education would find some diffi- 
culty in supporting it on the right scale. There is every 
reason to believe that the present administration of the board 
of health will bring about needed expansions as rapidly as 
possible. It should be borne in mind, however, that a change 
of administration in the city health department may at any 
time make it imperative for the board of education to assume 
control.* 



"'Further data in support of the recommendations made in this 
chapter will be found in the following books published by Houghton, 
Mifflin Co.; The Hygiene of the School Child, by Lewis M. Terman: 
Health Work in the School, by Hoag and Terman; The Teacher's Health. 
by Lewis M. Terman. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 283 



CHAPTER XII. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PLAYGROUND ACTIVITIES, 
AND HYGIENE TEACHING. 

(Terman.) 

I. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 

Tlie physical training- work as carried on at present in the 
grades below the high school is of limited value. The fault 
lies not so much in the methods employed to attain the end 
sought as in the fundamentally wrong conception as to what 
the purpose of a department of physical education should be. 

In order to make the criticism clear we may distinguish 
two types of physical education : 

Two types of physical education. The first relies chiefly on 
indoor calisthenic exercises, marches, drills, etc., and on mild 
forms of directed play which can be carried on in the class- 
rooms. This type is inevitably formal, makes little appeal to 
the child's interests, fails to arose initiative, has no moral or 
social value, and makes little or no contribution to health, 
the chief end of physical education. The most that can be 
said for it is that children occasionally welcome it as a relaxa- 
tion from more strenuous mental work, and that certain phases 
of it (dancing, marching, etc.) have an aesthetic value. It is 
a type Avhich once had wider vogue than at present, though 
it lingers still in occasional school systems where German ideals 
of formal drill and discipline have not been replaced by Amer- 
ican ideals of personal initiative and individuality. 

The second type places the emphasis on vigorous out-door 
recreation, including spontaneous play, organized group games, 
and other playground activities. Recreation of this kind ap- 
peals to the most fundamental interests of child life, cultivates 
initiative, affords constant and powerful training in moral be- 
havior, stimulates the development of social as contrasted with 
non-social or anti-social traits, and promotes health as nothing 



284 SCHOOL SURVEY REPOUT 

else can. This is the kind of physical education which is being 
fostered so M^ell by the rapidly developing playground move- 
ment. It is unquestionably and justifiably destined to sup- 
plant everywhere the more formal type of physical training 
which we have first described. 

These two types are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but 
may, of course, be comhined in various proportions. The con- 
trast serves, however, to make clear a fundamental distinction, 
and is especially servicea'ble in any evaluation of the physical 
training given in Salt Lake Citj^ 

The type in Salt Lake City. Here the work is molded 
mainly and purposely after the first type. Practically all of it 
is carried on indoors, either in the hall-ways or the class rooms. 
The supervisor and assistant go from room to room, taking 
each class separately for drills, marches, dances, calisthenic ex- 
ercises, and indoor games. Teachers are instructed how to 
carry on these exercises and are expected to give them daily 
if the special instructor is not present. Many of these exercises, 
as given hoth by the special instructors and the regular teach- 
ers, were witnessed by all the members of the survey commis- 
sion. They were found, with the exception of the dancing, 
uninteresting to the children, formal, void of hygenic value, 
and barren of the other results for which a department of 
physical education is supposed to exist. The so-called "indoor 
games" are for the most part games in name only. They are 
not only formal and dead but often inane. The following is 
offered as an average and fair example of the kind of physical 
education carried on in the grades below the high school. 

An average and fair example of the indoor games. Time, 
9 :30 a. m. Place, regular classroom, somewhat dusty and with 
windows closed. (Outdoors the air is balmy and the school 
yard is flooded with sunshine). Class, fourth or fifth grade 
boys and girls. Purpose of the games was stated as "relaxa- 
tion from mental strain." (The school has been in session 
30 minutes, and the pupils have just gotten well dowii to 
work). 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 285 

Four games are played iu succession. The first, which 
was the best, may be described as a "writing relay." The 
front pupil in each row is given a piece of chalk. At a given 
signal this is to be handed back over the right shoulder to 
the pupil behind, and by that one to the next, and so on 
until it reaches the last pupil, who then starts it forward over 
the left shoulder. "When the chalk has made the round trip, 
back over the right shoulder and forward over the left, the 
pupil in the front seat rushes to the blackboard and hastily 
writes the name of the school. Meanwhile the other pupils in 
the row move forward one seat, leaving only the rear seat va- 
cant. After hastily scratching the word on the blackboard 
the pupil rushes to the back seat and passes the chalk forward 
again over the left shoulder, and when it reaches the one in 
the first seat the process of writing the word, moving for- 
ward, and once more relaying the chalk to the front is re- 
peated. This is kept up until all the pupils of each row have 
had a chance to scrawl the name of the school on the black 
board. An attempt is then, made to judge the writing of the 
pupils of each row according to merit, but it is found that all 
of it is equally without merit owing to the haste with which it 
was done. 

The second "game" may be called an "eraser relay. " It 
consisted chiefly of passing an eraser back along the row over 
one shoulder and forward over the other, with a little turning 
and shifting of seats during the process. No contest element 
or other motive was evident, and the main result of the game 
was to thicken the already dustladen air of the schoolroom 
with clouds of chalk particles raised by the dropping of 
erasers. 

The third exercise is impossible to describe because it 
apparently involved no definite procedure, and no logical be- 
ginning, middle, or end. It consisted in having children at- 
tend, turn, stand, exchange seats; then stand, turn, and sit 
again, all by staccato command. The rule for exchanging seats 
wa^ not clear to the observer or to the children, most of whom 



286 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

got lost and confused in the process. When this had been kept 
up about two minutes the observer was asked to judge which 
row had done best, but he was obliged to confess that he had 
seen nothing which could be judged. 

The fourth game was a running relay, from the front to 
the back of the room and return, involving again the transfer 
of an eraser at each link of the relay. It is unnecessary to 
describe it in detail. Like the others, it was a mockery of 
health-giving exercise and a travesty of real play. 

The pupils returned to their regular work, with apparent 
relief, and for the remaining two hours of the forenoon in- 
haled at each breath proba'bly ten to twenty times as many 
injurious dust particles as would have heen t'he case had the 
exercises been taken out of doors, or not taken at all. 

Other exercises seen. The graded course in dancing ad- 
mits of more favorable comment. The dances were usually 
pretty, graceful, and much enjoyed by the pupils. It is recom- 
mended that this phase of the physical education be retained, 
but that always, when possible, the dancing he carried out in 
the open air instead of in the halls, as at present. The de- 
sirability of more attention to folk-dancing may be suggested. 

Most of the other exercises given in the hall-ways should 
be abandoned, or if any are retained they should be given out 
of doors, weather permitting. But nothing can be said in 
favor of such an exercise as the 'following, wherever given : 

Second grade class, in a basement hall-way dark enough 
to require artificial lighting; time 10 A. M. ; weather outside 
beautifully clear and warm. The children are arranged in a 
circle, and following the example of the leader each holds his 
hands in front of chest, elbows flexed, and repeats in a sing- 
song tone "one, two, three, four" (turning the hands over 
one another so as to make one revolution at each count) ; ''one, 
two, three, four" (this time rotating the hands four times in 
the reversed direction; "one, two" (bringing the two fists 
together twice on a horizontal line) ; "one, two" (striking one 
fiist twice on top of the other) ; "tra la la, tra la la" (moving 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 287 

forward a few steps). The purpose of this exercise was stated 
to be "health", but the observer was somewhat at a loss to 
see the connection, and the one in charge did not seem able to 
make it clear. 

The above concrete descriptions will serve to illustrate the 
type of work which was witnessed over and over again in all 
parts of the city by the members of the survey staff. The 
examples given are in no way whatever exceptional. It is 
unnecessary to dwell on the futility of so-called physical train- 
ing of this type, or to emphasize the absurdity of carrying on 
the exercises in dusty classrooms and dark basement halls. 
There may be some excuse for indoor physical training in the 
schools located near the center of New York City ; there is no 
excuse in Salt Lake City, even though some of the school 
grounds are of scanty dimensions. It is an open question 
whether most of the physical training witnessed was not more 
injurious to the pupils than beneficial. 

Character of the yard play. Playground activities are too 
much neglected. Children on the school grounds were rarely 
seen to engage in real play during recess periods. Jumping up 
and down, pushing and shoving, promiscuous chasing, and 
boisterous horse-play were much more in evidence than play. 
Just standing around was still more common. Theoretically 
there exists a curriculum of plays and games for the children 
of the grades, but it does not seem to be in operation. 
The indoor exercises of the formal kind have been given the 
right of way for the reason that they are frankly claimed to 
have the greater value. 

A partial exception should be made in regard to the inter- 
school games of baseball and basketball, which occur during 
the last month of the school year. These are fairly numerous, 
are well-managed, and seem to arouse much interest. Grades 
five to eight are represented in the games, though of course 
only a minority of the children in these grades can belong to 
the teams. 

On the whole, however, and particularly for the lower 



288 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

grades, the work of the physical training department needs 
to be reorganized on a different basis. Its purpose should be 
not merely relaxation from mental work, but the promotion 
of health through vigorous outdoor exercise, and the develop- 
ment of such a love of outdoor plays and sports as will function 
through life as a cheap form of health insurance. We are 
rapidly coming to understand that plays and games have an 
educational value along moral and social lines hardly less 
important than their hygienic value. Individual initiative, the 
give-and-take spirit, resourcefulness, ready judgment, willing- 
ness to subordinate personal to group interests, loyalty, co- 
operation, and social understanding are all significantly pro- 
moted by the right kind of play. 

To insure fsueh a rich development of the play life needs to 
be encouraged and directed. Without direction, play on the 
average school ground is likely to be desultory, lacking in 
variety, and almost void of educational significance. It is of 
course not necessary or desirable that play supervision be 
carried to the point where spontaneity and initiative are de- 
stroyed. It is not argued that children should be driven 
through games held as set and formal exercises. What is 
meant. is that children should be taught and encouraged to 
play a large variety of outdoor games, selected with special 
reference to definite stages of development of the play interests 
and physical capacities. 

Play teachers needed. To this end there should be play 
leaders on every playground during recesses and, if possible, 
before and after school hours. In every school there are teach- 
ers temperamentally adapted to this kind of work. One ener- 
getic full-time assistant, working under the direction of a 
supervisor of physical education, could furnish these teacher 
play-leaders the necessary instruction for carrying on the 
work. Such an assistant could probably be secured for about 
$1500. In addition it might be necessary to pay two or three 
teachers at each school a slight increase of salary for their ser- 
vice as play leaders during intermission, or a somewhat more 
substantial increase for play supervision after school hours. 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 289 

Over all these, and as guiding spirit of their work, would 
be the general supervisor of physical education, whose salary- 
should approximate that which is now paid, and whose duties 
should include, as now, supervision of physical education in the 
high schools. Unlimited energy, the play spirit, social tact, 
and moral leadership are among the essential qualifications 
for such a position. The director of physical education who is 
endowed with the proper force of character and with an inspir- 
ing personality exerts a direct and wholesome influence on 
every child in the school system. Under such an organization 
much could he accomplished, notwithstanding the inadequacy 
of playground facilities in many parts of the city. 

Physical education ini the high schools. There are four 
assistants in physical training in the high schools, one for 
boys and one for girls in each of the two schools. The women 
assistants are paid $800 and $1000; the men, $1300 and $1400. 
The force is adequate in size, 'but the lower salaries are not 
large enough to retain the services of teachers who are prop- 
erly equipped and suitably endowed for the work. 

The military drill. The main criticism of the physical 
training in the high schools, however, is that the system of 
compulsoiy military instruction employed monopolizes the time 
of the hoys to such an extent (414 hours a week) that the 
real work of physical education is necessarily relegated to a 
minor place. Military training may have, and probably does 
have, a certain amount of value, but a compulsory system 
w^hich takes so much of the pupil's time and energy as to 
reduce other forms of physical training to an extreme mini- 
mum is of questionable worth. Military drill cannot eompete 
with games in the cultivation of such desirable traits as initia- 
tive, resourcefulness, social co-operation, group loyalty, and 
love of play. Moreover it is of doubtful value from the hy- 
gienic point of view. The severity of the drill (Butt's Manual, 
designed for use with adult soldiers, is closely followed) would 
not tax the strength and endurance of the mature soldier who 



290 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

has been picked on the basis of physical fitness, but it is entire- 
ly unsuited to the physical capacity of many of the younger, 
weaker, and immature high school boys. 

Such a system of uniform and vigorous exercise for young 
and old, weak and strong, mature and immature, defective and 
sound, transgresses the most fundamental laws of physical 
training. The weight of the gun which is carried (not far from 
eight pounds) is entirely too great for the lighter boys, and 
the necessity of carrying it always on the same shoulder pre- 
disposes, in the case of young boys whose bones are still flex- 
ible, to spinal curvature and deformity of the chest. The 
clothing required is not such as should be worn during vig- 
orous exercise, and bathing facilities are not sufficient to en- 
able all to take a bath immediately after the drill. Add to 
these considerations the fact that the military training is not 
under the direction of the department of physical education, 
and is therefore carried on without expert hygienic or medical 
supervision of any kind, and we have a condition which is 
positively pernicious and dangerous. 

A memher of the school system, who has had ample oppor- 
tunity to learn the facts, informed members of the survey 
staff that no less than eighteen cases of faintings during or 
after drill had come to his attention. These had all occurred 
in the last three years. Faintings and temporary prostrations, 
however, are not as serious as the more concealed and latent 
injuries likely to be produced in those who have some organic 
impairment, such as heart lesion, weak lungs, diseased kidneys, 
etc. 

The military drill of the high schools is open to criticism 
on still other grounds. The cost of a uniform is not far from 
$16, which is ifully equal to the average cost of text books for 
three years. This must be a serious burden to many pupils, 
and as long as this expenditure is compulsory the high school 
can hardly be regarded a free school. Many would also ques- 
tion the political and moral justification of military training 
in the public schools of a democratic and peace-loving nation, 



PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 291 

but as this aspect of the question is open to debate it will not 
be urged in this report. 

Better physical training desirable. There are other rea- 
sons of sufficient number and cogency to justify the recom- 
mendation that the system of military training be dropped, 
and that the time be given over to more educational lines of 
physical training, including gymnastics and organized games 
and sports under the leadership of well trained and well paid 
instructors. 

The present corps of instructors is adequate in number 
to take care of the proposed enlargement of the physical train- 
ing work. It is well to emphasize, however, that the high 
school teacher of physical training should have as large a 
salary as other members of the high school teaching force. It 
is harder, in fact, to find a first class teacher in this line than 
in Latin, mathematics, or history. 

It would not be consonant with the aim of this report to 
describe in detail the particular activities which the depart- 
ment of physical training should carry on in the high schools. 
All of this can safely be left to the instructors, providing 
proper care has been exercised in choosing them. In all cases 
they should have had special training for such work. No 
greater mistake could be made than to select a young college 
graduate merely on the strength of his enviable athletic record. 
The professional training demanded for this work includes 
courses in personal hygiene, public health, advanced physi- 
ology with special emphasis in the physiology of exercise, the 
theory and practice of physical education, and the psychology 
and hygiene of adolescence. All the leading universities of 
the country give such courses, and only candidates with a lib- 
eral professional training of this type should be considered. 
In order to secure and retain such persons, however, it will 
certainly be necessary to go heyond some of the salaries now 
paid to the teachers of physical training in the high schools. 



292 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



II. PLAYGROUND ACTIVITIEiS. 

Small school playgrounds. Owing to short-sightedness in 
earlier years, Salt Lake City is very poorly supplied with play- 
ground space. This condition presents a surprising and pain- 
ful contrast with the spacious residence lots throughout the 
city, and with the absence of crowded tenement districts. So 
serious has been the neglect that the playground facilities are 
not superior to those of many cities far older and many times 
as populous. The situation is fully appreciated by the pre- 
sent board of education, and everything possible is being done 
to provide the newer schools with liberal playgrounds. The 
task of making good the neglect of former years still remains, 
however, and presents a serious financial and educational 
problem. 

The table on p. 223 shows the number of square feet per 
child in the entire site of each school, including the space 
occupied by the building, and the drawing on p. 224 shows 
the percentage of children attending school which have play- 
grounds of various amounts of space per child. 

It will be seen from this table that the following schools 
present the worst conditions in this respect : — ^Emerson, Grant, 
Fremont, Oquirrh, Longfellow, Lafayette, Lowell, Franklin, 
Wasatch, and Hamilton. WelDster, Sumner, Lincoln, Forest, 
Jefferson, and Poplar Grove are only a little better off. In 
several of these the grounds could still be enlarged by the pur- 
chase, at fairly reasonable figures, of adjacent unoccupied or 
little improved lots. 

In the erection of future school buildings in the outlying 
districts there will be no excuse for failure to provide ample 
room. Five acres should be considered the minimum for 
schools which are likely to enroll any considerable number of 
pupils in the next fifty or one hundred years. In a rapidly 
growing community such as Salt Lake City the danger is al- 
ways on the side of short-sighted economy. A mistake of this 
kind becomes increasingly deplorable as the years go by, until. 



PLAYGROUND ACTIVITIES. 293 

after a few g-enerations, the situation is both acute and irre- 
mediable. It is a sacred duty to provide not only for the wel- 
fare of our own children, but also for the welfare of those who 
are to follow. A board of education which fails of its duty 
in this regard will some day merit and probably receive the 
curses of those whom its negligence has defrauded. 

Larger use of playgrounds desirable. Mention has already 
been made of the unsatisfactory use made of the playgrounds 
during school hours. This fault seems to have developed main- 
ly in recent years and is one which can be largely remedied 
by a reorganization of the department of physical education 
along the lines already proposed. 

The use of the playground out of school hours in still 
more important. At present school grounds valued at approxi- 
mately a half million dollars are idle and unproductive a large 
part of the day. The real waste is infinitely greater than the 
corresponding interest loss on an unproductive financial in- 
vestment of a commercial kind, for it is a waste of health and 
of educational opportunity which can not be measured in dol- 
lars and cents. The remedy is to open the playgrounds for 
supervised play after school hours. It would be possible to 
secure regular teachers for this after-school work by paying 
a small additional salary, say $30 per month for two hours 
each afternoon and half days on 'Saturday. 

On this basis the total expense to the city each school 
year would not exceed $6000 for twenty such playground as- 
sistants. This is far less than the interest on the value of the 
grounds for that part of the school year during which they are 
unused. 

Vacation playground activities. A number of playgrounds 
have been kept open during the summer, and provided with 
play facilities by the joint action of the board of education 
and the city park commission. This work should 'be extended, 
and should by all means he taken over entirely by the board 
of education. Its control belongs there as much as does the 



294 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

control of the school plant during* the school year, and the 
unified control will be much cheaper for the city in the end. 

The present division of playground control between the 
park commission and the board of education has led to an 
absurd and ridiculous situation. The park commission equips 
a number of school yards with playground apparatus for use 
during the summer, but when school begins the apparatus is 
gathered up by the park commission and stored away for safe 
keeping until the following summer. The same children are 
there, and the same play needs are present, but the board of 
education is now in control, and so, in order to facilitate the 
bookkeeping of the city departments the apparatus is gathered 
up and carted off. The only way for the board of education 
to meet the issue and to perform its obligations to the recrea- 
tional needs of children is to take over the entire responsibility 
of the school playgrounds and keep them running twelve 
months in the year. This will involve some expense for 
salaries, and will necessitate the purchase of a good deal of 
playground apparatus, but it is the only solution. 

It is not deemed necessary to argue here the general ques- 
tion as to the desirability of ample playgrounds and increased 
playground supervision. Everyone who is acquainted with 
recent developments in the playground movement knows that 
this question has been settled once for all. Almost every city 
in the country, which is not educationally benighted, has ac- 
cepted the situation and is making an effort to enlarge and 
improve its recreational facilities. Any other attitude is not 
only bad educationally, but bad socially, morally, and eco- 
nomically as well. 



HYGIENE TEACHING. 



295 



III. HYGIENE TEACHING. 

The present course of instruction. The course of study in 
physiology and hygiene is well planned and modern in every 
respect. The texts, which could hardly have been better 
chosen, .include the following: Gulick's "Good Health" 
(grades 3 and 4), Gulick's "Town and City" (grades 5 and 
6A), Gulick's "The Body and Its Defenses" (grade 6B), and 
Ritchie's "Primer of Sanitation" (grades 7 and 8). In the 
first two grades the hygiene instruction properly consists of 
frequent talks, simple in nature, but definitely planned so as 
to acquaint the child with a fairly wide range of elementary 
health laws. Throughout the course, hygiene instruction right- 
ly takes precedence over physiology and anatomy. 

The time given to the subject is on the whole hardly 
adequate. In certain schools, especially is this true. The 
distribution of time devoted to hygiene among the various 
schools is represented for the different grades separately in 
the following chart. The middle line shows the median amount 



ftAINUTES PER WffK 
ZOO 



150 



100 



50 



^ ^ ^'3 / St: 


/ ,' ^,,' "^ \ f \v >-- '^ 



ABABABABA 

I u nr H X 



MAXI/V^UM 



N\EOIUM 
AAlNir^UM 



A B A B A B 
H 'W 'ML 



FIG. 44. SHOWING MINUTES PER WEEK DEVOTED TO 
INSTRUCTION IN PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE. 



296 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

of time per week for the city as a whole, the lower line the 
amount for the school giving least, and the upper line the 
amount for the school giving most time to the subject, in all 
eases the time including both recitation and study periods. 

Practical instruction. Altogether about a dozen hygiene les- 
sons w^ere witnessed in w^hole or in part by the various members 
of the survey staff. The instruction ranged from excellent to 
mediocre, but on the whole was of superior quality. Especially 
commendable was the effort, frequently observed, to make the 
hygiene instruction carry over into the everyday habits of the 
children. The children in one school (and this may have been 
true in other schools also) had been organized into a clean-up 
brigade, and were engaged in abating such nuisances and 
dangers as dirty streets, unclean meat shops, and breeding 
places for flies and mosquitoes. The Board of Health lends 
its active support to such work, and stands ready to invoke 
the authority of the law, if necessary, in order to remedy the 
evils disclosed by the school pupils. Work of this kind goes 
beyond mere instruction in hygiene and becomes training for 
effective citizenship. 

Another well-directed effort toward making hygiene in- 
struction practical was found in a school where the teachers, 
acting under the direction of the principal, require the every- 
day practice of personal cleanliness as a necessary condition 
o'f receiving a passing grade in the su'bject. In other instances, 
however, the lessons were bookish and theoretical. That great- 
er emphasis could well be placed on making the hygiene in- 
struction practical is illustrated by such facts as the following : 
that only 50 per cent of the pupils in the grades use a tooth 
brush regularly; that 63 per cent have not been to a dentist in 
the last year and that 36.8 per cent have never been to one; 
that in several of the schools personal uncleanliness and lack 
of neatness are common among the children. In many rooms 
the last is attested by strong and disagreeable odors emanating 
from the unclean bodies and clothing. 

The building's negative the instruction. In this connec- 



HYGIENE TEACHING. 297 

tion it is to be regretted that the schools themselves do not set 
better examples of hygiene. The effectiveness of hygiene in- 
struction is weakened if it is carried on in school buildings 
where the floors are dirty, where the feather duster still ling- 
ers, where walls and ceilings are discolored, where classrooms 
and halls are dark and dingy, where physical training is un- 
necessarily carried on indoors, where bathing facilities are 
totally lacking, where filthy roller towels are in evidence, 
where toilets are dark, unclean, loud-smelling, and crowded, 
or where disgusting economies are practiced in the supply of 
toilet paper. Some of these examples are before the children 
in every school, and certain schools are guilty of every sin 
above listed. 

It must never Tje forgotten that the teaching of hygiene 
and physiology is to be judged solely by its actual influence 
on the lives of the pupils. However ideal the course of study 
and the actual instruction, from an academic standpoint, the 
aim of the work is attained only in so far as practical results 
are secured. A little more insistence on this point of view, 
together with the improvement of hygienic practice on the 
part of the school, will add greatly to the efficiency of the 
hygiene instruction. 

iSummary and recommendations. On the basis of the re- 
sults of this chapter the survey makes the following recom- 
mendations as to needs and lines of future development : 

1. Physical education as carried on below the high school 
is based on a fundamental misconception as to the true pur- 
pose of such work. In the main it is extremely formal, is car- 
ried on chiefly indoors, and has little signiflcance for health. 
The work should be entirely reorganized and directed along 
the lines of outdoor play and other recreational activities. The 
instruction in dancing, however, is good and should be re- 
tained, with somewhat more attention to folk-dancing. 

2. The playgrounds in about half of the schools are ex- 
tremely inadequate, and insufficient use is being made of those 
which exist. It is urged that a number of the present play- 



298 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

grounds be enlarged, that the school authorities endeavor to 
anticipate .future needs in providing sites for new buildings, 
that the school playgrounds be equipped with apparatus by the 
school board, and that they be kept open under paid super- 
vision after school hours, on 'Saturdays, and during vacations. 

3. It is recommended that education through play Tdc 
more systematically fostered by the department of physical 
education, and that a sufficient number of well-paid assistants 
be provided for this purpose. 

4. The time for physical education in the high schools 
is too much monopolized by the system of compulsory military 
training. It is recommended that the military training either 
be made elective, and placed under the direction of the depart- 
ment of physical education, or that it be eliminated altogether. 
The latter is perhaps preferable. As conducted at present the 
military training involves serious danger to the health of many 
pupils compelled to take it. 

5. The hygiene teaching is on the whole good, though 
in certain schools hardly enough time is devoted to the sub- 
ject. In certain schools commendable devices are employed 
for the purpose of making hygiene teaching effective in the 
daily lives of children, and it is recommended that this kind 
of practical hygiene teaching be more generally emphasized. 

6. It is suggested that the effectiveness of hygiene in- 
struction could be increased by the correction of bad hygienic 
examples set by the school itself. Improvements in this line 
would include enlargement of playgrounds, the elimination of 
dry sweeping and dry dusting, the installation of baths, en- 
largement and improvement of toilet facilities, the elimination 
of roller towels, the use of liquid soap, and, where possible, the 
correction of defects in lighting, heating and ventilation. 



PART IV 

Finances 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 



301 



CHAPTER XIII. 
THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 

(Cubberly.) 

City costs for maintenance. In the study of costs for city 
maintenance in Salt Lake City, with special reference to 
schools, the city will T^e compared chiefly with the other west- 
ern cities, and for the reason that only where the costs for 
service and materials are comparable are total costs compar- 
able. 

Comparing all general city costs in Salt Lake City with 

TABLE NO. 49. 

RANK OF SALT LAKE CITY AMONG SIXTEEN WESTERN 

CITIES IN ITEMS OF EXPENDITURE FOR 

CITY MAINTENANCE. 





ITEMS 


Per Capita Cost for 


Rank of Salt 




SaltLake 
City 


16 Western Cities 
Average | Median 


Lake City in 
Amoun 
Spent 


1. 

2. 


General expenses of the 

city government 

Police department 

Fire department 


$1.44 

1.14 

.90 

1.43 

1.42 

.14 
6.71 

.16 
.42 
.12 


$1.84 
1.74 
1.76 
1.49 
2.09 

.30 
6.27 

.34 
.59 
.92 


$1.52 
1.47 
1.61 
1.45 
2.10 

.11 
5.73 

.35 
.51 
.23 


10th 
15th 
16th 


4. 

5 


Health and sanitation 

Care of streets 


9th 
16th 


6. 


Charities, hospital and cor- 
rections 


8th 


7 


Schools 


5th 


8. 


Libraries, art galleries and 
museums 


16th 


9. 
10. 


Parks and playgrounds 

Miscellaneous expenses . . . 


10th 
13th 


11. 


Total per capita cost 

Interest on public debt . . . 


$ 13.88 
3.29 


$ 17.34 
3.06 


$ 15.08 
2.70 


12th 
7th 



Total per capita rate |$ 17.17 |$ 20.40 |$ 17.78 



13th 



the fifteen other western cities first used in Table No. 3, page 
12, and used continuously throughout this report, we get 
the Table No. 49, calculated from the U. S. Census Bureau's 
last published volume on the Statistics of Cities. 



302 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



From this table we see that the costs for all items of city 
maintenance in Salt Lake City are low. In other words, it is 
a very economically administered city. The figure given below 
shows the distribution of city expenses for annual maintenance, 
reduced so as to show where each dollar of taxes raised goes. 




FIG. 45. HOW SALT LAIvE CITY SPENDS ITS DOLLAK. 

Only in the expenditures for schools and for interest on the 
bonded debt do the costs for any items in the list reach the 
average for other western cities. In three items Salt Lake 
City's costs are the lowest of the list, while in totals the city 
is thirteenth among the sixteen cities. The larger per capita 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 



303 



expense for schools is only what would be expected in view of 
the large number of children in the population, as was shown 
in Table No. 3, page 12. 

Costs per capita for schools. An examination of the per 
capita costs for schools in the twenty-six cities used in previous 
tables in this report, as well as in the sixteen western cities 
with which comparison has also been made from time to time, 
gives us the next table. This shows the total city maintenance 
costs, the costs per capita for schools, and the percentage of the 
total city expense^ for annual maintenance that go to the sup- 
port of public education, for each of the two groups of cities. 

TABLE NO. 50. 

SHOWING PER CAPITA COSTS FOR CITY MAINTEN- 
ANCE, INCLUDING INTEREST CHARGES, AND 
PER CAPITA AND PERCENTAGE 
AMOUNT FOR SCHOOLS.f 



I. Western Cities 


* 




1. San Francisco, Cal 

2. Portland, Ore 


$36.09 
17 71 


$4.27 
4.73 
4.95 
5.06 
5.41 
5.71 
5.72 
5.72 
5.74 
6.01 
6.26 
6.71 
7.60 
7.64 
8.66 

10.11 


11.9% 

26.7 

24.7 

24.8 

29.7 

31.6 

28.6 

32.7 

32.5 

26.8 

42.0 

39.1 

51.3 

38.9 

31.9 

43.3 


3. Tacoma, Wash 

4. Seattle, Wash 

5. Spokane, Wash 

6. Butte, Mont 

7. Denver, Colo 

8. Sacramento, Cal 

9. Oakland, Cal 

10. San Diego, Cal 

11. San Jose, Cal 

12. Salt Lake City, Utah . . . 

13. Berkeley, Cal 


19.99 
22.15 
18.87 
18.25 
21.00 
17.49 
17.77 
22.44 
14.91 
17.17 
14.74 
19.63 
26.17 
23.38 


14. Colorado Springs, Colo. 

15. Los Angeles, Cal 

16. Pasadena, Cal 




Average for the group 
Median for the group . . 


$20.48 
19.27 


$6.27 
5.73 


32.3% 
31.8 



*Ogclen is omitted from this group for the reason that the United 
States Census Bureau does not publish financial statistics for cities 
which in 1910 had less than 30,000 inhabitants. Ogden population in 1910 
was 25,580. 

tStatistics here, as elsewhere, are from the U. S. Census Bureau's 
last issued annual volume on Statistics of Cities, and compare all 
cities for the year 1912-13. 



304 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE NO. 50, CONTINUED. 

II. Cities of the class of Salt Lake City. 



CITY 


Total Maintenance 
Cost Per Capita 


Cost Per Capita 
for Schools 


Per cent of 
Total for Schools 


1. Reading, Pa 


$ 9.33 
13.24 
14.72 
15.63 
14.40 
14.46 
14.99 
17.10 
13.10 
18.40 
11.86 
18.57 
14.88 
13.83 
19.99 
20.82 
17.83 
22.30 
13.81 
17.22 
18.87 
22.69 
20.94 
17.17 
22.55 
16.86 


$ 3.13 
3.29 
3.99 
4.02 
4.07 
4.15 
4.16 
4.17 
4.22 
4.24 
4.37 
4.41 
4.85 
4.90 
4.95 
4.99 
5.04 
5.14 
5.21 
5.24 
5.41 
6.22 
6.26 
6.71 
7.07 
7.26 


33.6% 


2. Bridgeport, Conn 

3. Lowell, Mass 


24.8 
27.1 


4. Lynn, Mass 


25.8 


5. Lawrence, Mass 

6. Dayton, Ohio 


28.2 
28.7 


7. Fall River, Mass 

8. Albany, New York 

9. Kansas City, Kan 

10. Troy, New York 

11. Youngstown, Ohio 

12. New Bedford, Mass 

13. Trenton, N. J 

14. Camden, N. J 

15. Tacoma, Wash 

16 Omaha Neb. 


27.8 
24.4 
32.2 
23.1 
36.8 
23.8 
32.6 
35.5 
24.8 
24.0 


17. Somerville, Mass 

18. Cambridge, Mass 

19. Grand Rapids, Mich 

20 Duluth Minn 


18.4 
23.5 
37.8 
30.2 


21 Spokane Wash 


29.7 


22. Yonkers, N. Y 

23. Hartford, Conn 

24. Salt Lake City, Utah 

25. Springfield, Mass 

26. Des Moines, Iowa 


27.4 
30.0 
39.1 
31.3 
33.6 


Average for the group 
Median for the group . . 


$16.75 
16.98 


$4.80 
4.88 


29.0% 
28.5 



Compared with first half of the eastern cities of the above 
table, Salt Lake City appears high, hoth in the per capita 
cost for isehools and in the percentage of city funds given to 
education. With the second part of the eastern cities table, 
and with the western cities, Salt Lake City occupies nearer an 
average position. 

Why these figures are misleading. These figures, though, 
are somewhat misleading, notwithstanding they are the ones 
commonly used in comparing costs. In the first place, most 
eastern cities pay a much lower salary schedule to Avomen 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 305 

teachers than is the case in the west, and, as approximately 
65 per cent of all expenses are for teachers' salaries, it will 
he seen that few eastern cities can with fairness be compared 
with western cities in the matter of per capita school expendi- 
tures. An eastern city spending $4.00 per capita for schools, 
and paying its elementary school teachers $40.00 a month, is 
exactly the same as a middle western city paying its teachers 
$60.00 a month and spending $5.30 per capita, and the same 
as a western city paying its teachers $80.00 a month and 
spending $6.60 per capita, assuming that each devotes 65 per 
cent of its maintenance costs to teachers' salaries. For this 
reason any comparison of eastern with western cities is likely 
to he very misleading. Accordingly, we shall from this point 
on compare Salt Lake City only with other western cities, 
where salaries and other school costs are more comparable. 

The figures given in the last table, both for eastern and 
western cities, are also misleading for the reason that they 
fail entirely to take account of the percentage of school chil- 
dren in the total population. A community such as Salt Lake 
City, as was pointed out in Chapter I, must spend more money 
because of the much larger number of children it contains. 
A per capita expense of $6.71 for schools, and 39.1 per cent of 
the total city maintenance costs for education may at first 
glance look large, but, as will be shown further on, it really 
is not so. The large number of school children in the city 
necessitates a high per capita cost for schools, without the cost 
per child educated being high at all, while the large percentage 
of city funds devoted to schools is fictitious for the reason that 
all city costs for other items are low. If Salt Lake City's ex- 
penditures for other items of city expense were at as high a 
rate as is the case in many western cities, the percentage de- 
voted to education would be reduced to somewhere near 25 
to 30 per cent. This would be low, considering the large num- 
ber of children of school age in the population. 

A real basis for comparing' school costs. To get a real 
basis for comparing school costs we must take into considera- 



306 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

tion the number of children to 'be educated, and reduce all per 
capita costs for schools to what it costs per capita for each 
1 per cent of the school population. For example, if a city 
spends $6.00 per capita for schools, and 12 per cent of its 
population consists of children between 5 and 15 years of 
age, * it can be iseen that it spends "50 cents for each one per 
cent of its school population. If another city also spends 
$6.00 per capita and has 15 per cent of children, this second 
city spends but 40 cents for each 1 per cent of its school popu- 
lation. Similarly, a third city having 20 per cent of children 
spends but 30 cents per capita. Though each city is given, 
in statistical tables, as spending the same amount per capita 
of its population for schools, in reality the three cities are 
spending entirely different amounts. Any real comparison of 
per capita costs requires that we first reduce our cities to com- 
mon terms, and see what each is spending for each 1 per cent 
of its school population. Using the age groups 5 to 15, and 
reducing all to a 1 per cent basis, we get the next table. 



*These two age limits are used in this report because for them 
we have accurate percentages for aH states and cities of the United 
States, coUected by the United State Census Bureau. They correspond 
to the ages from the kinderga.rten to the completion of the ninth grade, 
if the pupil advances normally. 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 

TABLE NO. 51. 



307 



COST PEE CAPITA FOR SCHOOLS, BASED ON EACH ONE 

PER CENT OF CHILDREN (FROM 5 TO 15) IN 

THE TOTAL POPULATION. 



CITY 


Cost per capita 

total population 

for scliools 


Per cent of popu- 
lation 5 to 15 
years of age 


Cost for schools 

for each 1% of 

children In the 

population 


1. Tacoma, Wash 


$4.95 
6.71 

4.27 
5.41 
5.71 
5.72 
4.73 
5.06 
6.01 
5.72 
5.74 
6.26 
7.64 
7.60 
8.66 
10.11 


15.2% 

18.5 

11.9 

14.5 

15.1 

15.2 

12.0 

12.5 

13.4 

12.1 

14.1 

13.8 

16.0 

14.7 

13.0 

13.6 


$.32 

.36 

.36 

37 


2. Salt Lake City, Utah 

3. San Francisco, Cal 

4. Spokane, Wash. 


5. Butte, Mont 


37 


6. Denver, Colo 


37 


7. Portland, Ore 


39 


8. Seattle, Wash 


40 


9. San Diego, Cal 


.46 


10. Sacramento, Cal 


47 


11. Oakland, Cal 


.47 


12. San Jose, Cal 


.48 


13. Colorado Springs, Colo 

14. Berkeley, Cal 


.48 
.52 


15. Los Angeles, Cal 


.67 


16. Pasadena, Cal 


.74 






Average for the group . . . 
Median for the group . . . . 






$.45 
.43 



The last column of this table gives a real basis for com- 
paring school costs in different cities, — that is, Avhat each city 
is spending per capita for each one per cent of its school 
children. As parochial and private schools have never flour- 
ished in western cities, with the possible exception of San 
Francisco, the comparison of costs is all the more accurate. 
Similar comparisons for the tAventy-five cities of the first part 
of Table No. 50 show a range of from 30 cents to 45 cents for 
eastern cities, but the low salaries paid women teachers there 
and the large hold of both private and parochial schools make 
the comparisons less accurate than for western cities. Hart- 
ford, Conn., however, shows a per capita expense of 40 cents 
for each 1 per cent of its children between 5 and 15 years of 
age; Des Moines, Iowa, 44 cents; and Springfield, Mass., 45 
cents. 



308 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 



The median western cost. It will be seen from the last 
column of the last table given that the average cost for the 
sixteen western cities is 45 cents, as against Salt Lake City's 
36 cents, and that the median western cost is 43 cents. The 
cities which are caring properly for their children are those 
which are spending more than these amounts. Averages and 
medians show only a half-w^ay point between good conditions 
and poor conditions, and almost never represent a desirable 
stopping place. Still, to see the position of the different cities 
in the matter of caring for their children, and to set up a 
tentative standard for school maintenance, let us take the 
median of 43 cents as a standard below which a city ought 
not to go, and apply it to each of the cities of the table. Mul- 
tiplying the percentage of children of school age in the total 
population by the median cost of 43 cents for each 1 per cent, 
we get the next table. 

TABLE NO. 52. 

MEDIAN AND ACTUAL COST PER CAPITA FOR SCHOOLS 
FOR WESTERN CITIES. 



CITY 



% of popula- 
tion from 5 to 
15 years 
of age 


Desirable 
cost per 
capita S,43 
for each 
1 ''jc of 
cliildren 


Actual 
cost per 
captia 


11.9 


$5.12 


$4.27 


12.0 


5.16 


4.73 


12.1 


5.20 


5.72 


12.5 


5.38 


5.06 


13.0 


5.59 


8.66 


13.4 


5.76 


6.01 


13.6 


5.84 


10.11 


13.8 


5.93 


6.26 


14.1 


6.06 


5.74 


14.5 


6.24 


5.41 


14.7 


6.32 


7.60 


15.1 


6.49 


5.71 


15.2 


6.54 


4.95 


15.2 


6.54 


5.72 


1 16.0 


6.88 


7.46 


1 18.5 


7.96 


6.71 



Excess or 

deficit over 

estimate 



1. San Francisco, Cal. . . . 

2. Portland, Ore 

3. Sacramento, Cal 

4. Seattle, Wash 

5. Los Angeles, Cal 

6. San Diego, Cal 

7. Pasadena, Cal 

8. San Jose, Cal 

9. Oakland, Cal 

10. Spokane, Wash 

11. Berkeley, Cal. 

12. Butte, Mont 

13. Tacoma, Wash 

14. Denver, Colo 

15. Colorado Springs, Colo 

16. Salt Lake City, Utah 



\ .85 
.43 
.52 
.32 

3.07 
.25 

4.27 
.33 
.32 
.83 

1.28 



— 1.59 

— .82 
+ .58 

— 1.25 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 309 

Where Salt Lake City stands. The second column of fig- 
ures shows what each city of the table should spend per capita 
of the total population for the maintenance of its schools, 
merely to bring that city up to the median point for the sixteen 
western cities. To bring any city up to the average for west- 
ern cities would cost slightly more. For Salt Lake City it 
would raise the desirable per capita cost from $7.96 to $8.33. 

On the basis of a cost of $7.96 it is seen that 'Salt Lake 
City is spending, on the maintenance of its schools, $1.25 less 
per capita of the total population than it should, merely to 
put the city in a middle position in the matter of annual school 
maintenance. On a basis of a total population of 110,000, this 
would mean that the city should raise and expend on mainten- 
ance alone $137,500 more than it now does, merely to care for 
its present children as well as is done in the median western 
city. To rank with the better Avestern cities in the matter of 
public education would mean an additional expenditure for 
maintenance of approximately $200,000 a year. 

These figures tally well with the statement made in Chap- 
ter IV, after considering the increasing number of pupils per 
teacher, that the city needs now about one hundred additional 
teachers merely to care properly for its present number of 
children. The table which follows, showing the amount ex- 
pended by the different western cities for each child in average 
daily attendance at school, here based on figures collected and 
published by the ,U. S. Commissioner of Education, also con- 
firms the above estimate as to the need for large additional 
funds to maintain properly the present schools. 



310 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

TABLE NO. 53. 



MAINTENANCE COST PER PUPIL IX AVERAOE DAILY 
ATTENDANCE. 



CITY 


Cost per Pupil Id 
average dally attendance 


1. Tacoma. Wash 


$4o ;>2 


2. Salt Lake City, Utah 


44.81 


o. Saai Fraiioisoo. Cal 

4. Peuvor, Colo 


44. S6 

4S.07 


5. San Joso. Oal 

6. Portland. Oro 


44 . 86 
49.95 


7. Oakland Oal 


52.33 


S (.''olorado Sprinsis Colo 


52 . 65 


Spokano AVasli 


54.94 


"10 San Diosi'o. Cal 


fiO . 90 


11. Soattlo. AVasli 

12. Borkoloy. Cal 

13 Bntto !Mont 


(U^.oO 
ti2 . 20 
63.45 


14 Sacra nionto, Cal 


64.75 


15 Los \nsieles Cal 


68.03 


16 Pasadena, Cal 


86.87 






Avprace for tliC' srroup 


$55.23 


Modian for thp a,"i"oup 


52.65 







From this tablo it will bo soon that Salt Lako City is noxt 
to tlio lowost i'or all Avostorn oitios in tho aiuonnt spent per 
pupil, aiul imioh bolow both the median and the average for 
the group. The ditVeronee of $T.S4 below the median, for the 
L^.oi^T pupils in the sohools during 1914-lo, would require an 
inoveaso of $14;>,;>J^7 nioroly to bring tho oity's expenditures 
up to the middle point of expenses for western eities. To 
bring the eity up to tlie average western eity in expenditm'es 
would require $10L3S4 inoroaso. 

Wealth and tax rates. Thoro still remains to be oonsid- 
erod tho real wealth of tho oity. and tho tax rate roqnirod to 
produee the median rate of 43 eents for eaeh 1 por eont of the 
sehool population in Salt Lake City, and in other western 
eities. Takiujr now the aetual wealth of eaeh western eity, as 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 



311 



shown ill Table No. 6, ini Chapter I, and the desirable per 
capita support for schools at the western median figure of 43 
cents for each 1 per cent of the school population, we get, 'by 
divisions, the next table. This shows the actual wealth in 
each city upon which each dollar of the tax for schools must 
be raised, and the rate of tax per $100 of actual wealth neces- 
sary to raise this median sum. 

TABLE NO. 54. 

TAX RATES, BASED ON ACTUAL WEALTH, NECESSARY 

TO PRODUCE ESTIMATED PER CAPITA 

SUPPORT FOR SCHOOLS. 



CITY 


Actual 

Wealth 

per capita 


Desirable 
per capita 
support for 
schools at 

$.43 for 
each 1'/'<' 

school 
population 


Actual wealth 
for each 
dollar of 
estimated 
per capita 
support 


Bate of tax 

on each $100. 

of actual 

wealth nec- 

cessary to 

produce 

eslimate 


1. Butte, Mont 


$ 795.88 
1126.50 
1202.31 
1081.02 
1237.22 
1683.52 
1371.13 
1477.92 
1666.12 
1602.77 • 
1791.41 
1930.87 
1796.60 
1924.44 
2596.00 
2561.82 


$6.49 
6.54 
6.88 
5.93 
6.54 
7.96 
6.32 
6.06 
6.24 
5.38 
5.84 
5.59 
5.20 
5.16 
5.76 
5.12 


$122.62 
172.25 
174.75 
182.30 
189.17 
211.50 
216.95 
243.88 
267.01 
297.90 
306.75 
345.41 
345.50 
372.95 
450.69 
500.35 


$.814 


2. Denver, Colo 


.58 


3. Colorado Springs, Colo. . 

4. San Jose, Cal 


.572 
.546 


5. Taconia, Wash 


.527 


6. Salt Lake City, Utah 

7. Berkeley, Cal 


.473 
.461 


8. Oakland, Cal 


.41 


9. Spokane, Wash 

10 Seattle Wash 


.375 
.335 


11 Pasadena, Cal 


.326 


12. Los Angeles, Cal 

13. Sacramento, Cal 

14 Portland, Ore 


.289 
.289 
.269 


15 San Diego Cal .■ . 


.222 


16. San Francisco, Cal 


.20 


Average for the group . . 
Median for the group . . 


$1630.85 
1634.45 


$6.06 
6.00 


$281.25 
255.44 


.405 
.397 



It is here that the large per capita wealth of 'Salt Lake 
City tells. Were the city as poor as Butte, it would require 
a tax of over one dollar; had the city as few children as Port- 
land, the tax would be reduced to a trifle over 30 cents. It is 
very evident that Salt Lake City can ailEord large families. 



312 



SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 



"Tax hAt[1, iN c^eNts. 

ZO 30 40 




GO 



I SAN FRANCISCO 
Z. PORTLAND 

3 SACRAMENTO, 

4 SEATTLE 
.5 L0SAN6LLLS 

6 SAN DIEGO 

7 PASADENA 
S'SAN JOSC 

9 OAKLAND 

10 5P0KANL 

II BERKELCY 

12 BUTTE 

13 TACOMA 
14- DENVER 

15 COLORADO SPR. 

16 AVF0RALLCITIL5 
17SALTLAKECITY m^ 
I^.YONKERS.NY 
19SCRAHT0(M.PA 
^0 FALL RIVER. MAS 3 



FIG. 46. TAX RATE IN CENTS ON EACH $100 OF REAL 

WEALTH WHICH WOULD BE REQUIRED FOR 

PROPER MAINTENANCE IN SALT LAKE 

CITY, IF THE . PERCENTAGE OF 

CHILDREN WERE THE SAME 

AS IN THE OTHER CITIES 

OF THE TABLE. 

Figure 46 shows clearly how the tax rate for schools must 
increase proportionally to the number of children of school 
age in the population. The figures and lines of this chart give 
the rate of tax for school support which would be required, in 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 313 

Salt Lake City, to provide merely the median rate of 43 cents 
for each. 1 per cent of school population, if the city had the 
same percentag'c of children in its population as have the dif- 
ferent cities given on the figure. That is, if Salt Lake City had 
as few children as Portland, which is in many respects a com- 
parable city, the tax required would be but $.307 on. the $100, 
instead of $.473; if it had as many children as Fall River, the 
tax required would be $.o22. 

Need for a larger school tax. A tax rate for schools of 
$.473 per $100 of real valuation is equivalent to a tax rate of 
$1.3514 on the present assessed valuation of 35 per cent. This 
is the same as 13.5 mills, as taxes are usually calculated in 
Utah. As the money received from state and county sources 
is worth somewhere near 3.5 mills, the total local tax desir- 
able for proper maintenance is about 10 mills. Under the new 
state law requiring property to be assessed at its full value, 
beginning with 1916, the maintenance rate should not be less 
than 4 mills. The legislature, however, in ordering assess- 
ments advanced to full value, has at the same' time cut the 
rate of tax allowed proportionally. This leaves the schools 
with two mills in place of their present six. That the assessor 
will treble the assessed valuation of the property in Salt Lake 
City may be seriously doubted. If valuations are actually 
increased two and one-half times the result will be as satis- 
factory as has usually taken place elsewhere. 

With a tax rate, for maintenance already wholly inade- 
quate, and the new rate reduced in proportion to the expected 
increase in valuations, just what the schools of Salt Lake City 
are to do in the immediate future is rather hard to see. It 
looks as though even more serious cramping and crowding of 
the schools, and the employment of more cheap and inex- 
perienced teachers, with little or no new development, would 
be the inevitable result. At the present time the schools of 
Salt Lake City can hardly claim a high place in any single 
phase of recent public school development, and largely because 
the city school authorities have had so little money with which 



314 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

to develop the system. It has taken all of the money to main- 
tain the traditional type of school and teach the so-called fun- 
damental school subjects. Where the schools will be in a de- 
cade more of the present policy of pinching to make both ends 
meet is not hard to guess. The drawing on the opposite page 
shows that for years the schools have not kept up their ex- 
pense for maintenance proportionally with the increase in 
pupils, and that a material part of the recent increase in ex- 
penses has been due to rapidly increasing charges for bond 
interest and expenditures for buildings and sites. The ex- 
penditures for annual maintenance, represented 'by the space 
in white, has hardly widened in proportion to the increase in 
membership in the schools. Under the present tax limit neces- 
sary educational increases are difficult, while the desirable 
new features and additions recommended in this report are 
not financially possible. 

The remedy a legislative one. The trouble, however, does 
not lie with the people of Salt Lake City. They are willing 
enough to educate their children properly. Recent editorials 
in the leading newspapers regarding the schools and their sup- 
port would lead one to feel that they, the people, are willing 
to go even further and support the schools even generously. 
It is the people of Utah, as represented in the state legislature, 
who stand in the way. This is done by imposing .a mainten- 
ance tax-limit so small as to make really good schools for the 
future entirely out of the question. This is neither justice nor 
sound public policy. Public education is the great means for 
improving government and advancing intelligence. If any 
community desires to provide better schools for its children, 
and is willing and ahle to do so by local taxation, it is exceed- 
ingly short-sighted for the state to stand in its way and prevent 
its doing so. 

That the people of Salt Lake 'City are able to pay a much 
larger local school tax for maintenance has been shown. That 
they must provide from 25 per cent to 50 per cent more 
schools and teachers than the average western city has also 



ExpenoLitu»-cs § 




FIG. 47. INCREASE IN EXPENSES AND CHILDREN IN 
SCHOOLS COMPARED. 



316 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

been shown. That the people are willing to pay more is con- 
fidently believed. Such being the case, the legislature ought 
to enlarge materially the local tax permitted to be levied. 
Under the new assessment law a tax of at least 4 mills, clearly 
for maintenance, should loe provided, and if interest and sink- 
ing funds are to continue to be paid from this, the rate should 
be 5 mills. In but few cities are bond interest and sinking 
funds required to be paid from the annual maintenance rates. 
It would be better to shift these items to the building tax, 
leaving the maintenance fund clear for school support. 

With the many pressing building needs, both for new 
buildings to keep up with the growth of the city and for the 
alteration and gradual replacement of rooms not now fit for 
use as school rooms, as is pointed out at some length in Chap- 
ter X, an annual building tax of 2% or 3 mills, under the new 
assessment 'basis, is not too high. Salt Lake City needs many 
new school rooms, and so far as possible these ought to be 
paid for as built. In a city as wealthy as this one the annual 
interest charge on 'bonds ought not to be increased where it 
can be avoided. The city's interest bill is relatively high now. 

There can of course be no relief from present conditions 
until the legislature gives the city larger freedom to spend 
what it has in its own pockets, and is willing to spend if per- 
mitted to do so. The enactment of a new governing school 
law, embodying the main lines of the law suggested in the 
Appendix to this report, would solve the difficulty entirely 
and enable the city's educational system to advance to the 
place it ought by right to occupy. 

Distribution of expenditure. But one question of a fi- 
nancial nature still remains to be considered, and that is arei 
the present expenditures properly proportioned. Tabulating 
for the same sixteen western cities previously used we get the 
following table. 



THE FINANCIAL PROBLEM. 

TABLE NO. 55. 



317 



DISTEIBUTION OF SCHOOL EXPENDITURES IN SALT 

LAKE CITY, COMPARED WITH SIXTEEN 

OTHER "WESTERN CITIES'. 



ITEMS 

For administration 

For supervision 

For teachers' salaries 

For janitors and labor 

For text-books and school 

supplies 

For fuel, water, power and 

other supplies 

For maintenance and repair 

of plant 

For health conservation . . . 
For miscellaneous 



Percentage of total spent for each 



In Salt 
Lake City 


Average 
City 


Median 


Highest 


Lowest 


3.0% 
9.9 
64.1 

5.5 


3.3% 
9.1 

67.2 
5.9 


3.0% 
9.7 
64.8 
5.5 


4.6% 
15.3 
71.6 
10.8 


1.8%| 

3.4 
60.0 

4.2 


7.9 


5.4 


4.8 


11.9 


1.6 


3.4 


3.7 


3.5 


8.0 


1.2 


5.8 
0.2 
0.2 


6.0 
0.4 

0.5 


5.7 
0.2 
1.9 


12.1 
1.2 

2.7 


3.1 

.0 
.0 



This table answers the question. Excepting for text-books 
and supplies, Salt Lake City's distribution of expenditures 
follows closely the average for the sixteen cities, and is also 
close to the median. The higher percentage for text-books and 
supplies comes from the free text-books supplied by the city. 
In all California cities these are supplied by the state, while in 
Washington, Oregon, and Montana, the pupils furnish their 
own. books. 

Distribution of expenditures for the next two years. For 

the next two years, until some adequate legislative relief can 
be obtained, it is important that the board of education devote 
as large a proportion of its funds as is possible to the first 
three items of the table. All repairs which the educational 
department does not certify as absolutely necessary ishould 
wait, and all expenses not necessary for instruction should be 
curtailed. Even then there may not be sufficient funds to 
maintain the schools during 1916-17 for longer than nine and a 



318 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

half months, or possibly nine. The people of Salt Lake City 
as a body scarcely realize how inadequately their schools are 
supported, or what a handicap they labor under by reason of 
the restrictions laid upon them by the laws of the state. 



SUGGESTED NEW LAW. 319 

APPENDIX A. 

A SUGGESTED LAW FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SALT 
LAKE CITY SCHOOL DISTRICT. 

The following is a suggestion for a new law for the Salt Lake City 
school district, based on the needs presented in this report. For 
the reasons for the different recommendations, made in the fol- 
lowing suggested law, the reader is referred back to the different 
chapters of the report itself. 

An Act, Providing for the Organization of Schools in Cities of the 
First Class. 

Be it enacted by the Legislature of the State of Utah: 

Section 1. Sections amended. That Sections 1892 to 1961, in- 
clusive. Compiled Laws of Utah, in so far as such relate to the gov- 
ernment of schools in cities of the first class, unless otherwise herein 
provided, are amended to read as follows: 

Section 2. — Schools in cities of the first class. Each city of the 
first class, and all territory which shall hereafter be added thereto, 
shall constitute one school district, and shall be under the control of 
a board of education to be elected as herein provided, separate and 
apart from the counties in which the cities are located. All public 
schools and property shall be under the direction and control of the 
board of education for such city, and the schools therein shall be 
free to all children of the city between the ages of five and twenty- 
one, and to such other persons as the board of education may decide 
to admit. 

Section 3. — The board of education; how constituted. The board 
of education in each city of the first class shall consist of five mem- 
bers, to be elected from the city at large, one each year on the first 
Wednesday in December, and for a five-year term; provided, however, 
that of boards of education in cities of the first class in existence 
when this act takes effect, the five members which have the longest 
remaining time to serve shall constitute the new boards of education, 
and the five who have the shortest time to serve shall pass out of the 
office the day this act takes effect; and provided further, that the five 
members who remain shall forthwith proceed by lot to so provide for 
the termination of their terms of office that the term of one member 
shall expire at the close of the year in which this act takes effect, 
and one other at the close of each year thereafter for the following 
four years. All elections thereafter shall be for five-year terms ex- 



320 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

cept in the case of vacancies caused by the death, resignation, or 
removal of a member from office, in which case elections shall be 
for the unexpired term. The board of education shall fill, by appoint- 
ment until the next annual school election, any vacancies occuring in 
its own membership. All members elected shall qualify previous 
to, and take their seats at the first regular meeting in January next 
after their election, and shall serve until their successors are duly 
elected and qualified. Each member shall be and remain a qualified 
registered vo*er of the city, and shall receive no compensation for his 
services. 

Section 4. Conduct of Elections. Elections for members of the 
board shall be called and conducted, and the canvass of returns shall 
be made, and the qualification of electors shall be as provided in the 
general registration and election laws, except as herein provided. 
There must be at least one poling place in each municipal ward, 
which may be at a schoolhouse or schoolhouses to be designated by 
the board of education. It shall not be necessary to file certificates 
of nomination of candidates, nor to publish a list of nominations. 
Appointments of judges of election shall be made by the board of 
education, at any convenient time prior to the day of election. Any 
form of ballot which is simple and plain and which conveys the in- 
tention of the voter may be used. In case a member is to be elected to 
fill out an unexpired term, as well as one for the full term, the ballots 
shall specify the term which each person voted for is to serve. The 
ballot shall be folded, and no designating mark or device of any kind 
shall appear on the outside thereof, and shall be deposited in the 
ballot box by the presiding judge of election, in the presence of the 
voter, on the name of the proi»sed voter being found on the registry 
list, and on all challenges to such vote being decided in favor of 
such voter. Boards of education shall exercise all such powers rela- 
tive to school elections in their respective cities as are conferred 
upon the boards of county commissioners in other elections, so far as 
conformable with this title. 

Section 5. Organization of board; executive officers. The mem- 
bers elected as herein provided, before entering upon the discharge 
of their duties, shall take and subscribe the oath of office. At the first 
regular meeting in January of each year each board shall reorganize 
by electing one of their number as president, and one other member 
as vice president. 

Each board shall also appoint a superintendent of schools, a 
clerk and purchasing agent, a superintendent of buildings, a super- 
intendent of attendance and census, a superintendent of health work, 
and a treasurer, and may appoint such other officers as the needs of 



SUGGESTED NEW LAW. 3il 

the schools shall require; provided however, that all such officers now 
employed shall continue to serve for the terms for which they were 
originally appointed, and thereafter such officers shall be appointed 
for two-year terms, unless otherwise provided in this act. Any officer 
appointed by the board may, however, be removed at any time, for 
cause, by a four-fifths vote of the board. Their salaries shall be as 
fixed by the board, but a salary once fixed cannot be reduced during 
the term of office of any officer. 

It shall be the duty of the president, or in case of his absence 
the vice president, to preside at all meetings of the board, to appoint 
any necessary special committees, and to sign all warrants ordered 
by the board of education to be drawn upon the treasurer for school 
m'oneys. It shall be the chief function of the board of education to 
hear reports, settle matters of school policy, decide upon extensions 
and improvements, appropriate funds, and adopt rules and regulations 
for the government of its executive officers; it shall be the chief func- 
tion of the executive officers appointed by the board of education to 
execute the policies decided upon and to work in accordance with the 
rules and regulations adopted for their government by the board. 

Section 6. The superintendent of schools. The board of educa- 
tion shall appoint a superintendent of schools, for a four-year term, 
who shall be an educator of rank and experience, and who shall be the 
chief executive officer of the board of education. He shall have super- 
visory and co-ordinating oversight of the work of all other department 
officers, shall be notified of and be expected to attend all regular and 
special meetings of the board of education, or any special commit- 
tees of the same which may have been created, — except when his 
position, services, or salary is under consideration,^ — and shall have 
the right to speak on any question under consideration, but no right 
to vote. He shall have the exclusive right to nominate for election 
the superintendent of buildings, the superintendent of attendance and 
census, the superintendent of health work, and all assistant super- 
intendents, special supervisors, principals, and regular and special 
teachers, and shall assign to them their duties. He. shall also have 
exclusive control of the outlining and directing of the instruction in 
the schools. For incompetency, immorality, or insubordination, he 
may remove any teacher, principal, or supervisor from office, and 
shall report his action to the board. 

Section 7. The clerk and purchasing agent. The clerk and pur- 
chasing agent shall be appointed for two-year terms, and before en- 
tering on the duties of his office he shall give a bond running to the 
board of education, in such sum as the board may require, conditioned 
on the faithful performances of the duties of his office. It shall be 



322 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT 

his duty to attend all meetings of the board and its committees, and 
to act as the secretary; to keep an accurate journal of its proceedings, 
and have the care and custody of the seal, records, and papers not 
otherwise provided for; to countersign all warrants drawn upon the 
treasurer by order of the board; to keep an accurate account of all 
moneys paid to the treasurer on account of said board, and from what 
source received, and all moneys paid on orders drawn on the treasurer 
by order of said board; and to prepare and submit to the board an 
annual statement, under oath, of the receipts and disbursements dur- 
ing the year ending June thirtieth, showing: 

1. The amount on hand at the date of the last report; 

2. The amount of sinking fund and how invested; 

3. The moneys paid out, and for what paid; 

4. The balance of schools money on hand; 

5. The number, date, and amount of every bond issued and re- 
deemed under the authority herein given, and the amount received 
and paid therefor. 

The clerk shall also act as purchasing agent for the board, unless 
the board should decide to divide the duties and appoint a purchasing 
agent, and he shall buy, under direction of the board, the superin- 
tendent of schools, or the executive officers concerned, all materials 
and supplies needed by the school department. 

Section 8. The treasurer. The treasurer shall give a satisfactory 
bond running to the board of education, in such amount as the board 
may require, conditional on the faithful performance of the duties of 
his office. He shall be the custodian of all moneys belonging to the 
corporation, and responsible upon his bond for all moneys received 
by him as treasurer. He shall prepare and submit in writing a 
monthly report of the receipts and disbursements of his office, and 
pay out school moneys only upon a warrant signed by the president, 
or in his absence or disability, by the vice-president, countersigned 
by the clerk, and shall perform such other duties as the board may 
require. 

Section 9. The superintendent of buildings. The superintendent 
of buildings shall be a person who has been trained as an engineer, 
and shall have charge of the maintenance and repair of the school 
plant, under the direction of the superintendent of schools. All re- 
pairs and alterations must first be approved by the superintendent of 
schools. The superintendent of buildings shall employ all janitors, 
mechanics, and laborers as needed, and shall direct them as to their 
duties. 

Section 10. The superintendent of attendance and census. The 
superintendent of attendance and census shall have charge of the 



SUGGESTED NEW LAW. 323 

enforcement of all laws relating to the attendance of children at 
school, the granting of working permits to children from whom such 
permits are required, and the taking and maintenance of detailed and 
accurate records as to the age, nationality, whereabouts, physical con- 
dition, and attendance or non-attendance at school of every child 
between the ages of five and sixteen in the city, and shall supply such 
information in duplicate form to the schools of the city. From the 
card records on file the annual school census, required of all districts 
annually in July, shall be compiled and forwarded to the state super- 
intendent of public instruction. 

In cities of the first class all children within the compulsory 
school ages, and not exempted from attendance by law, shall be ex- 
pected to attend school every day the public schools are in session, 
and to provide for the proper enforcement of this law all private and 
parochial schools shall make reports as to children within the com- 
pulsory school ages attending their schools, and the public school at- 
tendance officers shall in turn enforce the attendance of pupils en- 
rolled in private and parochial schools. 

Section 11. The superintendent of health work. Where the 
health work is efficiently conducted by the board of health, the board 
of education may permit it to remain under such jurisdiction, but at 
any time it may co-operate with the board of health in further de- 
veloping the work, or take over the work in part or in whole. In any 
case it shall be the duty of the board of education to see that an 
efficient school health service is provided for the schools of the city, 
with nurses, physicians, and such specialists as may be needed prop- 
erly to carry on the work. 

Section 12. Annual report. It shall be the duty of the board of 
education in each city of the first class to see that an annual report, 
covering the operations of the schools, the finances, and the operations 
of the different departments or divisions of the school system, with 
sufficient statistical matter properly to illustrate the progress of the 
schools, is compiled and printed for distribution among the people of 
the city. The superintendent of schools shall report on the educa- 
tional work, progress, and needs of the schools, and the other execu- 
tive officers shall report through him as to the work of their depart- 
ments. 

Section 13. Annual budget. Each year the board of education 
in each city of the first class shall cause to be compiled, on or before 
the first day of May of each year, a detailed budget covering the 
needs of the schools for the school year commencing on the first day 
of July next thereafter, in all of their departments. When prepared 



3-24 SCHOOL SURVEY REPORT. 

this budget shall be submitted to the board of education for its ap- 
proval. The budget shall show the amounts necessary to carry on 
the school system as it is, the amounts needed for necessary addi- 
tions, and the amounts desired for extensions or expansions of the 
school system. The budget shall also be classified so as to show the 
needs for each department, and the amounts needed for maintenance 
of the schools, maintenance and repair of plant, additional sites and 
buildings or additions to existing sites or buildings, bond interest and 
sinking fund requirements, and such other items as the board of edu- 
cation may direct. 

Section 14. Annual school tax. When the budget has been ap- 
proved by the board of education, the amounts estimated to be re- 
ceived from state and county school taxes shall first be deducted, and 
the board of education, through its proper officers, shall forthwith 
cause the same to be certified to the officers charged with the assess- 
ment and collection of taxes for general county purposes in the 
county in which the city is situated, and such officers, after having 
extended the valuation of property on the assessment rolls, shall levy 
such per cent as shall, as nearly as may be, raise the amount re- 
quired by the board, which levy shall be uniform on all property with- 
in the said city as returned on the assessment roll; and the said 
county officers are hereby authorized and required to place the same 
on the tax roll. Said taxes shall be collected by the county treasurer 
as other taxes are collected, but without additional compensation for 
assessing and collecting, and he shall pay to the treasurer of said 
board, promptly as collected, who shall hold the same subject to the 
order of the board of education; provided, that the tax for the support 
and maintenance of such school system in cities of the first class shall 
not exceed, for annual maintenance, five mills on the dollar in any 
one year upon the taxable property of said city, of which at least 
sixty per cent shall not be used otherwise than for the payment of 
teachers and supervisory officers; nor three mills on the dollar in any 
one year for repairs or extensions of the school plant, new sites or 
buildings, and bond interest and sinking fund or bond redemption 
requirements. 

Section 15. Other powers. Boards of education in cities of the 
first class shall exercise all rights and powers and be charged with 
all responsibilities and duties now by law given to boards of educa- 
tion in cities of the first and second class, except in the matter of the 
examination and certification of teachers as provided for in Sections 
1916 to 1926 inclusive of the compiled laws of the state, except in so 
far as such may have been amended by the provisions of this Act. 



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